Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 16:47:54 GMT 1
Hello, This is the topic pvtgmr posted information regarding the armies of some of the more unknown armies of the Second World War. As a amateur historian (studying to become a professional one), I feel obligated to save this information after the closure of BKP and BKHQ. They will be posted chronologically after the date they entered the Second World War. Moderators: if this topic has been misplaced, feel free to move it. Regards, Martin Haugland / Joseph_Porta
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 16:48:40 GMT 1
中華民國 Jhonghuá MínguóRepublic of China ARMY The seizure of Mukden on September 19, 1931 marked the beginning of overt Japanese aggression against China, and from 1937 there was open war. The disorganised Chinese forces were no match on the battlefield for the Japanese armies, but determined resistance prevented a complete collapse. The very size of China precluded a total Japanese victory, and although the Chinese Nationalist government was forced to abandon the major industrial areas and set up a new capital at Chunking, it maintained the struggle, and, in alliance with the communist forces of Mao Tse-tung, tied down enormous numbers of Japanese troops. Organisation:Central power was represented by the Generalissimo, Chiang Kai-shek, who presided over the National Military Council, but a unified control proved elusive. Chiang's forces were commanded by men who had distinguished themselves by loyalty to the Generalissimo - and not by feats on the field of battle. Obsequiousness, and not valour, was the secret of a successful military career in Nationalist China. There were 12 war areas and these received their instructions from Chiang and his Council through a chief of staff, General Ho Yin-chin. Such military operations as were undertaken were concentrated on one war area at a time. The prospect of action was not greeted with any enthusiasm locally because the war lords often doubled as provincial governors as well as military commanders and the expenditure of military force detracted from their local political power vis-a-vis neighbouring war lords. Military operations received little support from central authority in Chungking because if a provincial governor fought a successful campaign, he might feel sufficiently powerful to challenge the power of the Generalissimo. To prevent this from happening, Chiang kept loyal divisions in the rear of the war areas to ensure the continued co-operation of the provincial governors. Consequently, there was no central strategic reserve, and the scattered distribution of military power contributed to the growth of petty satrapies of provincial power which, in turn, contributed to the spiral of inefficiency which reacted on any effort to drive the Japanese back and restore the power of central government. Each area commander recruited, trained, and (in so far as it was possible) equipped his own men. If the Japanese attacked one area, then the National Military Council would try to coordinate its defence. A Chinese Nationalist Division was a heterogeneous organisation with considerable potential; but as an American report on the Chinese Army in 1941 observed it was ill-equipped, poorly trained and quite inefficient. The nominal strength of such a division was 9529 officers and men. Most divisions averaged only 6000-7000 men, and others were even weaker. They lacked heavy equipment and an efficient supply system was conspicuous by its absence. It had no artillery or heavy weapons because Chiang hoarded the 800 pieces of Chinese artillery so that he could allot a well-behaved war lord some pieces for continued loyalty; thus they were never used effectively in large numbers. Chinese divisions normally relied upon trench mortars for artillery support, and a reasonably equipped division would field anything from 18 to 30 of these weapons. Firepower was supplemented on paper by 324 light and heavy machine guns (7.92mm) - though the average number was zoo light and 36 heavy machine guns per division. Because Chinese divisional commanders looked upon their formations as their private property, American aid had little impact on relative inefficiency because once new weapons arrived, they were immediately impounded by the commanding officer and hoarded. It is an indication of the level of corruption in China that she received between March 1941 and October 1945 $631,509,000 worth of aid, but nothing like an efficient force was ever permanently established. In nomenclature Chinese divisions resembled the Japanese (and, therefore, the German) system rather than the American. Chinese divisions were arranged in a triangular structure. There were three regiments to a division, but there was no army corps. This was replaced by a land army of three divisions and three of these armies formed a group army -a force which resembled a Western army. On average, each war lord had three group armies at his disposal. Chiang had a total of 3,819,000 men under arms by the end of 1942 2,919,000 of these were formed into 246 divisions, employed as `front line' troops, plus 44 brigades (a loose term applied to miscellaneous military formations). In the rear areas there were another 70 divisions and three brigades with a total strength of approximately 900,000 men. In addition, Chiang had another 30 divisions under his personal command to ensure the loyalty of his war area commanders and to keep a watchful eye on the activities of the communists. Against the Japanese he fielded something like 300 divisions. This alignment was only theoretical, however, because serious fighting was not contemplate. In October 1942 Lieutenant-General Joseph W. Stilwell was appointed Chiang's co-Chief of Staff. In trying to create an efficient fighting force he was faced with insuperable difficulties that would have taxed the talents of a more tactful and patient man than he. Political and social factors determined which troops fought in which theatres. Stilwell enthusiastically supported the so-called `Thirty Division Plan' which attempted to circumvent the usual restraints on Chinese efficiency by allotting 30 divisions for re-training at American training schools and giving these troops the best American equipment; Stilwell planned to use these troops in Burma. Chiang at first seemed to favour the plan and 20 divisions were initially made available to take part in the scheme. The 5th and 6th Armies were also placed under Stilwell's command in Burma. But Chiang gradually turned against the idea because of the dangers of placing such an efficient force under Chinese officers. Stilwell was ordered not to use his forces offensively, and when he received copies of the orders being sent out from Chungking, he discovered that all the Chinese commanders from Siam to Indo-China were being instructed to stay on the defensive and await an American victory in the Pacific War - the basis of Chiang's strategy throughout World War II. Uniforms:Between 1937 and 1945 Chinese uniforms underwent a number of changes. Both the Nationalist and communist armies suffered great shortages of clothing and equipment and had to make do with home or locally made items, so that uniformity was never very extensive and uniforms could vary considerably from region to region, army to army, and year to year. Initially Germany had been instumental in organising, training and equipping the Chinese Army, and this fact becomes obvious when one looks at figure 326. However, this shows a member of an elite guard unit, and more typical are figures 327 and 328. Uniforms in khaki drill and blue, which faded to grey, were worn concurrently, and during the bitter winters in central and northern China, it was the blue padded uniform which became the most typical form of uniform. Insignia:Badges of rank were worn on the collar (see rank insignia chart). The collar patches were originally made of cloth, but during the war metal and plastic patches were most common. The colour of the collar patches differed according to the arm of service. On the left breast soldiers wore a cotton label on which was printed in black characters the soldier's name and unit. Some labels had a border in the arm-of-service colour. AIR FORCE During the 1930s, the Chinese Air Force was composed largely of foreign volunteers, at first Americans but later Italians. By 1937 the strength of the Air Force stood at 500 aircraft, but few of these were serviceable, and the remainder were destroyed by the Japanese in the air battles of I937. Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Madame Chiang called for further foreign aid to form an international force to fight the Japanese. At first an international squadron was established of mixed membership, mainly British, American and Dutch pilots. It only had 36 aircraft and had been destroyed by 1938. The international squadron was replaced by six Russian squadrons, two of bombers and four of fighters provided under a clause of the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1937. The Russian force was totally self contained and provided all its own supplies and ground crew. It allowed the Chinese Air Force to regroup in the north around Kunming and the Russians sent it 400 aircraft, and a number of new and more efficient flying schools were set up. The kernel of the postwar Chinese Air Force was very largely Russian-trained. Although efficient, this Russian contribution was too small to provide an overall air defence of China, and in January 1939 after extensive Japanese raids on Chungking, Madame Chiang searched for reinforcements. The American Volunteer Group (AVG) filled the breach. In October 1940 Major-General Mao Pang-tzo, the Director of the Oprerations Branch of the Chinese Air Force, was sent to the United States to buy aircraft. Though the Chinese wanted 650, they eventually got 100 P-40s discarded by the British. The recruitment of pilots was much more difficult. Chennault enthusiastically agreed to head the AVG. To get round the Neutrality Acts two corporations were set up as go-betweens, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) and China Defence Supplies. All AVG recruits were considered as `employees' of CAMCO, and General Chennault was named as their `supervisor'. In June 1941 the AVG consisted of 100 pilots and 150 mechanics. The following month the AVG was allotted 269 new fighters and 66 bombers and a scheme was considered to extend the AVG to a second group equipped with Hudson bombers, though the entry of the US into the war after Pearl Harbor pre-empted this. The opening of the official war against Japan found the AVG in the midst of its worst crisis. The cumulative strain of countless missions, a sense of isolation and lack of adequate equipment - the neglect and incompetence of Chinese ground crews ruined most of their aircraft - led to a catastrophic drop in the morale of AVG pilots and 24 resigned. Chennault persuaded all but four of these to withdraw their resignations or face charges of desertion. But this kind of disagreement poisoned the atmosphere of the AVG and when it was absorbed into the China-AmericaTask Force, commanded by Chennault in July 1942, only a handful volunteered to join the USAAF. The CATF inherited 5'7 fighters from the AVG. In turn the CATF was absorbed into the 14th US Air Force in 1943 as China's main air defence. Uniforms:Since they formed part of the Army, Air Force personnel wore khaki uniforms. Those officers undergoing training abroad, or forming part of a military mission wore the uniform illustrated by figure 330, but the majority of officers wore whatever items of Army uniform they could find, and in general were not as well-dressed. Other ranks wore Army uniforms. In hot weather all ranks wore the field cap with khaki shirt and shorts, or overalls. Aircrew and ground crew wore various kinds of flying suits and overalls either of Chinese manufacture, purchased from the United States, or taken from the Japanese. Americans serving with the Chinese Air Force wore the uniform illustrated by figure 331. Insignia:Air Force personnel wore the sunburst badge on their head-dress, and sometimes the same badge was worn on the service dress or flying jacket. Rank badges were worn on the sleeves by officers and on the collar patches by other ranks. NAVYIn 1937 the Chinese Navy was very small by Western standards and totalled 59 vessels. The largest vessels were six light cruisers, none of which exceeded 3600 tons. Supporting these were 30 gunboats and a miscellaneous collection of 23 gunboats, sloops and transport vessels. Most of these were sunk in the Yangtze, at Shanghai, Tsingtao and Canton during the Japanese attacks of 1937 and fell easy victim to Japanese bombing and artillery fire. Some vessels that were beached were salvaged and repaired by the Japanese, but for all intents and purposes the Chinese Navy had ceased to exist. The great stream of Lend-Lease aid was diverted (when it did not find its way into the pockets of the generals) into military rather than naval uses. In 1945 it was discovered that one torpedo boat and 13 river gunboats were still operating. Five of these gunboats were former British, American and French craft, transferred when their Western crews had crossed overland from Burma. Uniforms:The Navy of the Chinese Republic received a standardised Naval uniform in I g I 3, which followed closely the European pattern. The uniform for officers is illustrated by figure 332. The greatcoat was doule-breasted and was worn with shoulder straps. Summer whites were in the same cut as the Navy blue uniform. Ratings wore the traditional square rig with British-style cap. The white version of the jumper had blue denim cuffs. Badges of rank are illustrated in the rank badge chart. COMMUNIST FORCES In north China, the communist forces of Mao Tse-tung were the main opponents of the Japanese. Like the Nationalists, however, they preferred to maintain a low level of operations, saving themselves for the coming struggle for the control of China. After Pearl Harbor, they decided that Japanese defeat was inevitable, and in any case the major communist offensive of the war up to 1941 (the `Hundred Regiments' Campaign' of 1940) had been very costly. Organisation:After the losses of the Long March, communist forces had begun operations against the Nationalists from their new base in Yenan in 1936, but in 1937 a truce was patched up to meet the Japanese menace, and the three communist Front Armies under Chu Teh were designated the 8th Route Army; this had an official strength of 45,000 men but was probably 80,000-strong, including guerrillas. After the losses of the `Hundred Regiments' Campaign', the communists set about expanding their forces and creating a tightly knit army. By the end of 1943, the 8th Route Army was probably 325,000 men strong, of whom two-thirds were guerrillas, but the core was the regular force, which had a very precise structure. The basic organisation was quite standard: three squads (each of 10 to 16 men) made up a platoon; three platoons a company (with its administrative troops about 120 men strong) ; three companies a battalion; three battalions a regiment; three regiments a division and three divisions an army. Support weapons were whatever was available, and the communist forces were woefully lacking in machine guns and artillery until the Japanese surrender. The cohension of this ill-equipped army was enormous, however. The basic squad of 10 to 16 men was composed of three small teams, and the team leaders were often either members or aspirant members of the Communist Party. The platoon leader was invariably a member of the Party. This arrangement cemented loyalty at a very basic level, and was to give the communists a priceless advantage. In April 1945, Chu Teh, the communist commander, addressing the 7th Party Congress, claimed a total of 910,000 regulars, organised in the 8th Route Army, the New 4th Army, the South China Anti-Japanese Column and the Anti Japanese Allied Forces. He estimated that two and a half million communist guerrillas were operational. Uniforms:Chinese communist troops wore the same khaki uniforms as the Nationalists, and, while they were united against the Japanese, they wore the same `white sun and blue sky' emblem and rank badges. Once civil war broke out again, however, the communists began to replace the army field cap by either a round peaked cloth cap or the so-called `Mao cap', on the front of which was sometimes worn the five-pointed red star. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHSChinese National Army with a US 75 mm howitzer.Chinese and American crewed M3A3 light tanks.Chinese Communist Regular troops stand guard over captured Type 97's.
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 16:54:55 GMT 1
大日本帝國 Dai Nippon TeikokuEmpire of Greater Japan ARMY The Japanese Army was a mirror of Japanese society before 1945. It contained a peculiar amalgam of medieval attitudes and modern materiel, for the Army still followed the code of Bushido which upheld the virtues of man-to-man combat in a machine age, and demanded that the Japanese soldier die rather than surrender. The political influence of the Japanese Army had substantially increased in the years between the two world wars. The Army saw Japan's salvation in China: Japan should secure the vast resources of the Asian mainland by carving out for herself a continental empire. The Army consequently viewed the Soviet Union as Japan's most dangerous enemy - a power which had traditional interests in North China. The Navy looked to the Pacific Ocean, and particularly to the South West Pacific, with the rich prize of Malaya and the Dutch East Indies as the means by which the resources vital to the maintenance of Japan as a great power could be seized. The Navy, therefore, regarded the world's two greatest naval powers, Great Britain and the United States, as Japan's most deadly enemies. It was no coincidence that the two services shaped Japan's strategy to suit the exclusive capacity of either the Army or the Navy. Before 1941 the Army had most of its own way. Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and the province of Jehol in 1934. Three years later the Japanese Army embarked on a full-scale undeclared war against China. The Japanese aimed to destroy the Chinese Army in the field and thus bring the country to its knees quickly; this would avoid the colossal task of trying to conquer and hold the vast spaces of China. The Japanese generals failed. The Chinese Army was more elusive and remained intact, and Japan's need to keep large forces on the Chinese mainland was a limiting factor on her strategy throughout World War II. The peacetime strength of the Japanese army was 17 divisions. By 1940 it had 2 divisions in Japan and Korea, 12 in Manchuria and 2'7 in China. Even in 1943 the commitment in China still amounted to 25 infantry divisions, i armoured division, II mixed brigades, I cavalry brigade and I flying division - a total of 620,000 men and 14,000 vehicles. This force, known as the Kwantung Army, was called upon to provide a constant stream of reinforcements for the Pacific War, and by 1945 its units were understrength and too weak to pose any real threat. The focus of the war moved away from China to the Pacific when Japan attacked American and British bases in the Far East in December 1941. The Army was involved in a number of amphibious operations in the Pacific Island chains although this area was the Navy's prime responsibility. The Army's greatest success was probably the capture of Singapore and the expulsion of the British from Malaya and Burma. Outnumbered by the British forces the spirit of the Japanese soldiers and the ability of their commanders proved unbeatable: by March 1942 the Japanese Army stood on the frontiers of India. The Army grew to a maximum strength of five million men, in 140 divisions and numerous small independent units. The summer of 1942 marked the high-water mark of the Japanese advance, however, and when America's vast industrial and military strength was brought to bear the Japanese Army was forced over to the defensive. In the Pacific, US troops waged a bitter island-hopping war and in Burma the British eventually managed to get the upper hand against the extended Japanese Army. Although the war was clearly lost for Japan by 1944 the Army fought on as resolutely as ever and continued to do so until ordered to lay down its arms following the surrender on 2 September 1945. The armed forces of Japan suffered 1,700,000 casualties during World War II. Organisation:The figurehead presiding over the Japanese war machine was the Emperor, the titular Commander-in-Chief, who had the power to declare war and make peace. His power was actually merely formal. He was advised by two councils, the Board of Marshals and Admirals and the Supreme Military Council. The real power was vested in the Imperial Headquarters, however. This comprised the Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff, the Army and Navy Ministers and their service advisors. Responsible to these officers were the General Staff, the War Ministry and the two Inspectorates of Military Training and Aviation. The General Staff was composed of five main bureaux: general affairs, operations, intelligence, transport and historical. They prepared for war, trained the troops and researched Japan's strategical requirements. The Chief of the General Staff was officially appointed by the Emperor. The War Ministry - the focus of the Army's political power, for the War Minister sat in the Cabinet and was always a soldier - provided liaison with the Chiefof-Staff and in theory the Diet (or Parliament) and handled the administrative, logistical and mobilisation plans. The two Inspectorates undertook the training of the troops. Once in the field, the Japanese army was divided into army groups, area armies, armies, divisions, and forces with special missions which were not commanded by any particular army or division. Groups of armies represented an entire theatre of war: the Japanese Defence Army, the Kwantung Army and the Southern Army. An area army like the 23rd in Burma was the equivalent of a British or an American field army. The Japanese army was much smaller than its British equivalent, mustering only a strong British corps strength. There were no army corps in the Japanese Army. A Japanese army would vary in size from 50,000-150,000 men. The 18th Army in the south-west Pacific in April 1943, for example, had a nominal strength of 130,000 men, though its actual strength was much lower. This force comprised three divisions and an independent mixed brigade. The artillery component consisted of four independent field artillery companies, two field machine gun companies, one independent anti-tank battalion, six field artillery battalions, six field searchlight companies, and support units, which included engineer, transport and airfield defence troops. The dominant Japanese organisational weakness, throughout the war, was the splintering of formations. Men were taken from one unit, thrown together with men from another and given a special mission; once this had been undertaken, the unit was either split up again to form another or sent back to its parent formation. There was little continuity and consequently a profusion of independent units. The typical Japanese infantry division of December 1941 consisted of three infantry regiments, an artillery regiment, a cavalry or reconnaissance regiment and a regiment of engineers. Along with the divisional staff and the signals unit, the division was supported by a transport regiment, a medical unit and field hospital staff, water purification unit, an ordnance unit and a veterinary unit. As the war progressed ‘comfort battalions’ of prostitutes were attached to the divisions. There was, however, a great variation in the organisation and strength of Japanese forces depending on their location and the terrain encountered. Under the strain of war the Japanese categorised their forces under three headings: ‘A' the strongest; ‘B' representing the standard; and ‘C' the special. Not all Japanese divisions were composed of the same category of men. A standard ‘B' division might include `A' category artillery. Further, there might also have been a variation in strength within the divisional units themselves. In an `A' class infantry regiment, the regimental gun unit could be either one company of four guns or two companies of four guns under a small battalion HQ Despite these variations there were generally four kinds of Japanese infantry division. First was the standard division of `B' troops, the type most frequently encountered by Allied forces. Second was the strengthened division, composed of `A' type units which might also include an additional artillery group, consisting of a group HQ and a field or a mountain artillery regiment and possibly a tank unit. Third was the modified strengthened division which included the additional artillery but not the armoured elements. The rifle company strength of this formation dropped from 265 to 205. Finally there was the special division. This was a lighter type of division composed mainly of `C' troops with two brigades, each of four independent infantry battalions with supporting elements of small units of auxiliary troops (mainly of category `A'). These divisions were frequently used for garrisoning Japan's small island bases and, in China, for combating guerrillas. Japanese divisions were commanded by lieutenant-generals, following the German rather than the British model. Each lieutenant-general had a colonel as his chief-of-staff. The divisional staff was divided into two sections: the general staff section and the administrative section. Added to these were five departmental sections and an ordnance, a signal and a veterinary detachment including about 300 officers and men; the division would also have at its disposal 32 telephones and 30 miles of insulated telephone wire, two ground to air radios and eight other radios. It also had pigeons, dogs, hello lamps and semaphores to aid communication. The infantry component of the division - the infantry group - was commanded by a major-general who coordinated the three regiments. He had his own HQ and staff of 70-100 officers and men. He might also be allocated tankette companies of 80-120 men with 10-17 tankettes. The group tankette companies were organised into three or four platoons and a company train. Their main purpose was reconnaissance and they were usually sent to divisions which lacked a cavalry or reconnaissance regiment. The infantry regiment, commanded by a colonel, was formed of the regimental HQ and train, signal company, the regimental infantry gun train and antitank company and three infantry battalions with the possible addition of pioneer units. The regimental HQ was composed of 55 officers and men. They were mainly concerned with the tasks of administration, ordnance, and codes and intelligence, with a small detachment reserved for the anti-aircraft section, the headquarters guard and the colour guard. The pioneer or labour units were arranged in seven sections with a strength of 100-200 men. Men from the category ‘B' units might find themselves arbitrarily used to build airfields or beach defences. The regimental artillery element consisted of a small HQ staff of 24 officers and men. While one company consisted of two platoons each with two low-velocity infantry guns, the other had three platoons, each with two 37mm and, later in the war, two 47mm anti-tank guns. The machinegun companies were armed with 12, 8 or 4 machine guns and depending on this number would have a strength of 174, 144, or 73 officers and men. The forces supporting the division were independent of the infantry group. The divisional artillery usually consisted of a regiment of field or mountain artillery. The guns might be motorised, horse-drawn or pack. There were three battalions with 12 x 75mm guns each, and three gun companies (each with four 75mm guns) and a regimental train, giving a total strength of 2300 men. The divisional cavalry regiment had three rifle and sabre companies and a machine-gun company, with a total strength of 950 officers and men. The medical units were of poor quality as Japanese soldiers were expected to stand, fight and die and would, therefore, not require an elaborate medical service. A Japanese division might have three field hospitals. Each medical unit consisted of three collecting companies of three stretcher platoons and one ambulance platoon each. In all it would have 180 litters and 45 ambulances. The headquarters train might also include additional carts for carrying the wounded and medical supplies. But these aspects of war were invariably neglected by the Japanese; indeed it was not unknown for their medical personnel to be armed and used as ordinary fighting troops. The Japanese armoured division usually consisted of three tank regiments, and a motorised infantry brigade of 3800 men. The tank regiment would have a headquarters, three or four tank companies and a regimental ammunition train. The strength of the regiment was about go light and medium tanks and 800-85o men. In addition, there would be an artillery regiment of eight 105mm guns, and four 155mm howitzers; an anti-tank unit with 18 x 47 mm anti-tank guns and an anti-aircraft unit of four 75mm guns and 16 x 20mm guns. There were also supporting engineers, transport and medical units. The whole division totalled 10,500 men and 1850 vehicles. Japanese armoured divisions had some success against poorly equipped Chinese forces, but were in no sense the equal of the tank forces of the other great powers. The Japanese Army also had a large number of independent units and it was easy to organise special forces for specific missions. Rather than give all of these units heavy elements of anti-tank guns and artillery, these weapons were formed into independent units so that they could be used when needed. This trend reinforced the tendency towards fragmentation. In the first days of the war such combat teams spearheaded the Japanese advance into Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and the Solomons. The heavy losses sustained in 1943 were often due to a careless and haphazard combination of small independent units with little coordination and training. For example, one unit, the 6th Independent Anti-Aircraft Battalion, was rushed from Manchuria to Guadalcanal in 23 days to reinforce the task force thrown together in a hasty attempt to retake the island. After about 1943 the Japanese also began to use raiding forces (teishintai) These were chosen from the infantry, and trained with a particular mission in mind; they were quite independent of larger forces. A typical role was the attempt by Japanese special forces in Burma to destroy British artillery by commando-style operations. The strength of these forces varied with the size of their objectives. A typical example included: • HQ group (officer, NCO and orderly); • demolition and assault section (15 men); • support section (12 men) ; • reserve section (12 men). There were in addition small groups organised for raids into enemy territory to destroy bridges and lines of communication; to attack pillboxes, and fortified positions; demolition forces and tank fighting units; and also there were suicide squads which would be used to defend a vital point to the last man. Within the more traditional army structure, special provision was made for amphibious operations. After 1941, amphibious brigades were created of three battalions with a total strength of 3200 men. Each battalion was 1035 strong and had three rifle companies of 195 men each, divided into three platoons of four sections each and a trench mortar platoon. The 1st Amphibious Brigade had supporting artillery, engineer, machine gun, signal and tank units operating under the brigade HQ which boosted its strength to about 4000 men. During the advance through Malaya each Japanese division was equipped with 50 small motorboats and 100 collapsible launches for the assault on Singapore. All of these were carried on the shoulders of the troops themselves. A first wave of 4000 men and 440 guns (with 20 rounds of ammunition for each) were ferried across in this way. Uniforms:Japanese uniform developed both together and separately in its two principal theatres of war in China and the Pacific. The beginning of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 saw the Japanese Army dressed in uniforms introduced in 1930 which were designated Model go. Two versions existed in either a yellowish khaki wool for wear in temperate climates, or in khaki drill for summer and tropical wear. The basic service dress for officers is the wool tunic and for other ranks was the same as the officers' model and was worn with matching pantaloons, puttees and leather ankle boots. The standard head-dress (a peaked cap) and greatcoat are the ypical winter clothing worn in China. On the M90 uniform badges of rank were worn on red passants on the shoulders while the colour of the collar patches on the tunic identified the arm of service. Two types of steel helmet were in use at the beginning of the war in China. The first model was already on the way out, and was being replaced by the pattern worn throughout World War II which had a metal five-pointed star on the front. The standard tunic for officers is worn with badges of rank were either on the tunic collar or lapels, or sometimes fixed to the shirt collar which was worn outside the tunic collar. Breeches and long trousers matched the tunic and were worn with either high boots, ankle boots and leather leggings or simply brown shoes with long trousers. Other ranks wore matching pantaloons with puttees tied in a distinctive criss-cross manner, with either leather ankle boots or black canvas tabi (a form of footwear with separate big toe). Special uniforms were introduced for crews of armoured fighting vehicles and parachute troops. There was also a two-piece winter tank suit with short lined jacket with synthetic fur collar and pocket on the left breast. The trousers were cut in the form of a bib and brace overall, like the American tank man's overalls. On the winter jacket badges of rank were worn on the left breast, while on the summer version they were worn on the collar. Japanese Army parachute troops were first used in Palembang Sumatra in February 1942 and later in Leyte. A whole range of infantry weapons had been developed for airborne use, and on Leyte the typical Japanese paratrooper carried the following weapons and equipment: Model 89 (1929) 50mm grenade discharger and four grenades, two small M94 (1934) smoke candles, two anti-tank grenades and a pick and mattock in a specially designed canvas bag strapped to the leg. Strapped to the other leg was another bag containing an M2 (1942) 7.7 mm paratroop rifle, a bayonet, four more grenades for the M89 discharger two M97 (1937) hand grenades and 30 rounds of 7.7mm rifle ammunition. A third bag contained demolition material comprising three M99 (1939) magnetic mines and six blocks of demolition explosive. A fourth bag held a variety of canned and concentrated rations, extra socks, an extra shirt, first aid pouch and a length of rope. Insignia:Badges of rank were worn on the shoulders, on the collar of tunics and shirts, and on the front or sleeve of various kinds of special clothing. The rank badges, which were small red rectangles with horizontal yellow or gold stripes and five-pointed stars, were detachable (see rank insignia chart). On the cuffs of the greatcoat officers wore khaki rank distinction lace (one for company, two for field and three for general officers). In 1944 this system was extended to the tunic cuffs. Arm-of-service colours appeared on the collar patches on the M90 tunic, but in 1938 rank badges were moved to the collar patches, and from this date arm of service was identified by small yellow metal badges worn on the collar behind the collar patches, or by a zigzag strip of cloth in the arm-of-service colour which was worn on the right (sometimes also on the left) breast. The basic colours were scarlet for infantry, and tanks until 1940, green for cavalry, yellow for artillery and dark brown for engineers. PHOTOGRAPHSJapanese soldier on the march.(More will come later...)
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 17:00:11 GMT 1
(In case somebody feels offended by the flag above, say so (or edit it in case it is one of the moderators) and I will remove it.)Deutsches ReichGerman ReichOn 16 March 1935 Adolf Hitler re-introduced conscription and announced to the world the formation of a German air force. Needless to say this brought the restrictions imposed on the size and the strength of the German armed forces to an abrupt end. The next four years saw the rapid expansion of the German Army; a transformation from General Seeckt's Reichswehr into Hitler's Wehrmacht. In September 1939 the German Army went to war with forces which, although well trained in the latest concepts of mechanized warfare, had gained little combat experience except in the Spanish Civil War; and that had been very limited. Much of the specialized motorized equipment had yet to reach the field armies and so all the non-panzer and non-motorised divisions still traveled on foot and relied mainly on horses to haul their equipment and artillery. ARMY Whatever the shortcomings in quantity and quality of equipment, German human material was of the best. The Versailles Treaty, which had limited the Reichszvehr to one hundred thousand men, was turned to advantage, in that only the best personnel were retained in a completely professional army. There was even a surplus of soldiers to man the armed police forces of the various German states (Landespolizei), and these were later to be incorporated in the Army when conscription was re-introduced. There was, in addition, a vast pool of semi-trained manpower in the para-military formations of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei). Apart from the conscripts the German Army needed to attract volunteers who would make a career in the Army. To achieve this, terms of service were made more attractive, smart new uniforms introduced and well-equipped modern barracks constructed. At the same time attempts were made to break down much of the traditional petty authoritarianism of the Army, while retaining and even elevating the privileged position of the German soldier in society. The soldiers of the Wehrmacht set themselves very high professional standards so that when they went to war in 1939, they did so with enthusiasm and the strong conviction that they were the finest soldiers in the world. Hitler's main problem with the Army came from certain senior officers who opposed his aggressive foreign policy and held conservative views on the conduct of war, but these men had little influence. Their opposition was always hesitant, and affected by their approval of Hitler's modernization programme, while they would always be bypassed or replaced if they proved too troublesome. The German Army of World War II was in general a loyal, obedient and confident instrument of the German dictator. Organisation:In March 1939 the operational control of the Armed Forces was unified under the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) whose chief was Generaloberst (Colonel-General) Keitel. The management of the Army was the responsibility of the Army High Command, the Oberkommando des Heeres (OKH), which included the General Staff, although it was the Supreme Commander, Adolf Hitler, who was increasingly to take over the day-to-day running of the war. In 1939 Germany was divided into 13 geographical districts known as Wehrkreise, each of which was a depot for a number of divisions and formed a 'homebase' for their regiments. On mobilization there were 51 active divisions: • 39 infantry divisions (including four motorized); • 5 panzer divisions (plus a panzer brigade); • 4 light divisions; • 3 mountain divisions. When Germany mobilized, the system was rapidly expanded to include 16 reserve, 21 territorial (Landwehr) and 14 so-called Erganzangsdivisionen divisions. During 1939-40 the number of panzer divisions was doubled (mainly by 'converting' light divisions) so that there were 10 such divisions by the spring of 1940. For the Polish Campaign the OKW created two army groups: Army Group North (divided into 2 armies each of 3 corps) consisted of 1 panzer division, 1 mixed Army/SS panzer division, 2 motorized divisions, 16 infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade. Army Group South ( 10 corps in 3 armies) consisted of 4 panzer divisions, 4 light, 21 infantry and 3 mountain divisions. Two of XVII Army Crop's infantry divisions were Slovak, while attached to XIII Army Corps was the motorized SS infantry regiment Leibstandarte (Bodyguard Regiment) Adolf Hitler. The most important formation in the German Army was the division which could be one of five basic types: infantry, motorized infantry, panzer (armored), light and mountain. Infantry divisions had been raised in Wellen (waves) and the divisions of each wave varied to some extent in size, organization and equipment carried, depending upon their purpose and the availability of men and materials. The 35 divisions formed as part of the original 'wave' had a total strength of nearly 18,000 men each while those of the next wave were about 15,000 men strong. Divisions formed in the third and fourth waves had considerably less artillery support than the earlier formations. The infantry division comprised three infantry regiments (each of approximately 3,000 men) and one artillery regiment plus supporting divisional units as illustrated in the diagram. Contrary to the practice in most armies, the engineer battalion and the reconnaissance Abteilung (the Abteilung was a unit of varying size, between the regiment and the company, battery or squadron. It approximated to the British battalion, artillery regiment or tank regiment) were combat units, and, being equipped with flamethrowers and anti-tank guns, often led assaults on enemy positions. Another feature of the German Army was the decentralization of heavy weapons within the division so that each regiment had its own anti-tank and infantry gun company. The infantry regiment possessed its own headquarters with a staff company and signals, bicycle and engineer platoon. In the infantry battalion there were three rifle companies (about 180 men with an anti-tank rifle squad) ; a machine-gun company with three machine-gun platoons (12 men and two heavy machine guns each), and a heavy mortar platoon of three sections each with 19 men and two 8.1 cm mortars. The division of the battalion into one machine-gun and three rifle companies was the pattern in the first wave divisions while in later waves there were four 'mixed' rifle companies. The firepower of a regiment was as follows: • 26 heavy machine guns; • 85 light machine guns; • 18 x 8. 1 cm mortars; • 27 x 5cm mortars; • 12 x 3.7 cm anti-tank guns; • 6 x 7.5cm infantry guns; • 2 x 15cm infantry howitzers. The artillery regiment was divided into three field artillery Abteilungen each with three four-gun batteries of 10.5cm gunhowitzers. The medium artillery Abteilung was originally a non-divisional unit attached to the artillery regiment, but later became an integral part of first wave divisions. In addition to the divisional artillery which could vary in type and organization from one division to another, both armies and corps had at their disposal additional batteries of medium and heavy artillery. These batteries could range in size of caliber from the dual-purpose 8.8cm gun to the massive 60cm self-propelled howitzer known as a Karl Morser Most of the heavy anti-aircraft batteries were under Luftwaffe control but could be allocated to the Army for specific operations. Motorized infantry divisions were intended to keep up with fast-moving panzer divisions, and so they were completely equipped with motor vehicles. For the Polish campaign there were four motorized infantry divisions, each of three infantry and one motorized artillery regiment, but after this campaign they lost their third infantry regiment as more panzer divisions were formed. The panzer division during the Polish and French campaigns consisted of two tank regiments of two battalions each of four companies with 32 tanks each. This gave a total of 561 tanks including reserves and staff vehicles, although on mobilization tank strength was usually below establishment with an average of about 320 vehicles. The division was equipped with a combination of Mark I and II light tanks (armed only with machine guns and 2cm cannon), Czech 38(t) tanks and a few heavier Mark III and IV tanks. Each division had two fully motorized infantry regiments which were later to be re-designated as Panzergrenadiere. The reconnaissance battalion was equipped with armored cars and motorcycles, and the division also had its own motorized signals battalion and other services. The success of the German armored formations lay not in the quality of their vehicles (which were in some respects inferior to those of their opponents during the campaigns of 1940 but in a superiority of organization and tactical ability which enabled them to be the cutting-edge of the Army. The original light divisions, formed in 1937-8, were motorized cavalry formations which varied in organization but usually comprised a light tank battalion, one or two cavalry rifle regiments (each of two or three battalions) a motorized artillery regiment (24x 10.5cm gun howitzers) ; an anti-tank battalion (36x 3.7cm, 12 x 2cm guns) and a motorized reconnaissance battalion or regiment equipped with armored cars. As a divisional organization they were under-gunned and underarmoured and following the Polish campaign the light divisions were uprated to panzer divisions. In late 1940 four infantry divisions were redesignated as 'light' divisions although their organization was still basically that of an infantry division. The three mountain divisions were organized on lines similar to those of the standard infantry division although in the field organization varied according to circumstances. A typical establishment would be two infantry regiments, each divided into three battalions : the battalion comprising five companies. In keeping with their ostensible role they had a high proportion of lightweight and easily manageable equipment. The artillery regiment had two Abteilungen of eight 7.5cm guns each, one Abteilung of eight 10.5cm guns and one Abteilung of eight 15cm guns. The anti-tank Abteilung comprised 24 motorized 3.7 cm guns and was strengthened by the two regimental anti-tank companies which each had a strength of nine 3.7cm and three 4.7cm guns. In mountainous or rough country the mountain divisions proved a success; their flexible structure (based upon the battalion as opposed to the regiment) as well as first class training made them formidable opponents and provided them with an elite status within the German Army. In open terrain, when faced by conventionally armed formations, their lack of heavy firepower told against them, however. By 1939 there was only one cavalry formation left in the German Army, the 1st Cavalry Brigade (although it should be emphasized that the employment of horses for a variety of duties was widespread and remained so throughout the war). The brigade was composed of two mounted cavalry regiments and a battalion of mounted artillery. The regiments were divided into four cavalry squadrons and one `heavy' squadron (6 x 8cm mortars, 4 x 7.5cm guns) with a combined strength of about 1400 men each. Even in blitzkrieg warfare there was still a place for cavalry: on 25 October 1939 the Brigade was re designated the 1st Cavalry Division and reinforced in December with the 2nd Cavalry Brigade. The decisive but hard fought victory over Poland (losses were 10,600 killed, 30,000 wounded and 3,400 missing) surprised the world, and Hitler was able to brush aside the few remaining voices of caution within the German military establishment. Germany transferred her forces to the West in preparation for the invasion of France. By May 1940, the number of divisions in the German army was as follows: • 129 infantry divisions; • 4 motorized infantry divisions; • 4 light motorized infantry divisions; • 10 panzer divisions; • 3 mountain divisions; • 1 cavalry division. In addition the SS-Verfugungstruppe (from April 1940, known as the Waffen-SS) provided three motorized infantry divisions and a brigade. There were now over two-and-a-half million men under arms in the German Army, of which the WafFen-SS contributed about 100,000. For the invasion of France the German Army was organized into three army groups: Army Group A (von Rundstedt) with 45.5 divisions including 7 panzer; Army Group B (von Bock) with 29.5 divisions including 3 panzer, and Army Group C (von Leeb) with 19 divisions. Army Group C held a defensive position against the Maginot Line while the main offensive was launched by Rundstedt's Army Group A in the Ardennes with a subsidiary invasion of Holland and Belgium undertaken by Army Group B. From 9 April (when German troops invaded Denmark and Norway) to the armistice with France on 25 June, the German Army confirmed the superiority of its organization and tactics. Losses in Norway were 5636 men; the invasion of France and the Low Countries cost 27,074 killed, 111,034 wounded and 18,348 missing. Uniforms:The field-grey uniform of the German Army was a development of that worn during World War I. The final version was introduced in stages from 1935 onwards. In the Army there were two kinds of uniform: that issued by the state, and that provided by the wearer either at his own expense or at the expense of the state. During peacetime and in the first year of the war, officers often continued to wear tailor-made uniforms in the field, but since these were impractical, uncomfortable and costly to replace, they increasingly wore issue uniforms with officers' badges of rank. The basic field-grey uniform was standardized throughout the Army and its principal components were the steel helmet, side cap, field-blouse, greatcoat, trousers and marching boots. Mountain troops received the same uniform but the side cap was replaced by a mountain cap, and the trousers and boots by long baggy trousers gathered at the ankle, elasticated puttees and mountain boots. Mounted personnel were not only to be found in the cavalry, but in the many units which still relied on horses for transport or reconnaissance. They were given breeches lined with leather and heavy riding boots. A special black uniform for crews of enclosed armored vehicles was also introduced in 1935. It consisted of a black padded beret which served as a crash helmet, short double-breasted jacket and long baggy trousers. This uniform, which was at first only to be worn when on duty with the vehicle, was both practical and popular. Its black color, offset by a silver death's head badge, was dramatic and contributed in no small way to the esprit of this young arm; and so it was extended to crews of self-propelled guns who received a field-grey version at the beginning of 1940. Generally speaking the German clothing industry had achieved miracles in keeping pace with the expansion of the Army and the German uniform was a rare combination of tradition and modernity, comfort and smartness. Even so there were not enough uniforms to go round and the vast stocks of uniforms found by the Germans in Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland were sorted, stored, stripped of national emblems and issued to German conscripts to compensate for shortages. Insignia: The primary method of identifying rank in the German Army was by means of the system of shoulder straps which not only showed the wearer's rank, but his arm of service, formation and status. In addition, officers were distinguished by their head-dress (peaked cap with silver chin cords and side cap with silver piping) and brown leather equipment. All non-commissioned officers wore the basic soldiers' uniform (unlike many European armies modeled on the French system where NCOs wore the officers' uniform), but were identified by silver lace on their tunic collar and shoulder straps. Soldiers wore their badges of rank on the left sleeve. The arm of service was indicated by various colors (golden yellow in the cavalry, for example, as illustrated in the insignia chart) which appeared as piping on the peaked cap, chevrons on the front of the side cap, stripes on the collar patches, and as piping and underlay on the shoulder straps. Medals and decorations were comparatively rare at the beginning of the war, being restricted to World War I awards, long service awards, political awards, and decorations awarded for service in the Spanish Civil War. It was, however, characteristic that the Germans continued to wear decorations in action, although this singled them out as targets for snipers. PARA-MILITARY UNITS Para-military units played an important part in the campaign of 1939, and in the creation of those tensions which the Germans used to justify their invasion of Poland. Despite its status as a Free City, German `tourists' were introduced into Danzig during the summer of 1939, and on 18 August came the public announcement of the formation of the German sponsored SS-Heimwehr Danzig (Danzig Home Defense SS). It was organized like a German infantry battalion but with four rifle companies as well as a machine-gun and infantry-gun company, a signals and engineer platoon and two anti-tank platoons. Its strength was 42 officers and 1,500 men and it was fully motorized. In September the Danzig Heimwehr, together with the Danzig Police, took part in the attack on the Polish controlled Post Office, and in the assault on the Westerplatte fortress. After the Polish campaign the battalion was disbanded with its personnel going as cadres to other SS units. In addition to the Danzig Heimwehr other units and formations of the embryonic Waffen-SS participated in the Polish Campaign alongside German Army units, thereby gaining valuable experience. Immediately behind the advancing armies came units of the German Labor Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst) which repaired bridges and roads under the supervision of Army engineers. Electricity, gas and telecommunications were restored by the Technical Emergency Service (Technische Nothilfe), while in the newly-occupied towns and villages traffic was controlled and roads kept clear for the armed forces by the special Traffic Regulating Service (Verkehrs-Erziehungsdienst) of the National Socialist Motor Transport Corps (NSKK). Internal security and the full horror of the Nazi regime were ruthlessly imposed by special mobile units of the German Police (Einsatzkommandos) who arrested or executed a long list of people considered too dangerous or unworthy to live under the 'new order'. As German regular troops were withdrawn from Poland, garrison duties were taken over by SS Tokenkopf (Death's Head) Infantry Regiments and battalions of German Security Police (Schutzpolizei). Uniforms:The SS-Heimwehr Danzig had field-grey Waffen-SS uniform with the death's head on the right collar patch and a black cuff-band on the left cuff with SS-Heimwehr Danzig in silver letters. The Danzig Landespolizei wore a police green uniform, but instead of the German national emblem, they wore a death's head on the peaked cap and on the right side of the steel helmet. Both the NSKK and the Reichsarbeitsdienst had khaki uniforms and wore the NSDAP armlet on the left sleeve. The Technical Emergency Service had a black uniform but men attached to Army units were issued with field-grey uniforms. AIR FORCEThe creation of the first German Air Force (Luftwaffe) as an independent branch of the German armed forces was announced in March 1935, although, in fact, a semi-clandestine build-up had taken place before this under the cover of the German Air Sports Association (Deutsche Luftsportverband or DLV). Soon after Hitler's seizure of power, Hermann Goring was appointed first postwar Air Minister. By the time the existence of an Air Force was made public it already had about 1000 aircraft and 20,000 officers and men. Expansion and the replacement of obsolete aircraft with the very latest models took place very rapidly and by 1937 the Luftwaffe was able to test its modern aircraft and tactical theories in the Spanish Civil War. In March 1938 German aircraft were used to transport troops during the annexation of Austria (which resulted in the incorporation of the Austrian Air Force into the Luftwaffe), and in September German airborne troops took part in the occupation of the Sudetenland. When the Luftwaffe went to war in September 1939 it was a well equipped and highly trained force, which had been created to perform a specific role as conceived by the Wehrmacht strategists, who saw it as an adjunct to land warfare. To perform its tactical role, the Luftwaffe had pioneered Army/ Air Force co-operation, developed effective dive-bombing techniques in support of ground forces, and perfected the transport of troops and supplies by air. In addition it had taken over from the Army its experimental parachute troops and had radically improved the techniques by which troops could be landed in the combat zone by parachute and glider. But when Germany's lightning and unexpected successes took on larger implications, the Luftwaffe, so well adapted to a close-support role, was unable to provide the long-range bomber force necessary to strike effectively at British and Soviet industry and communications. Organisation:Control of the Luftwaffe was exercised by the Luftwaffe High Command (Oberkommando der Luftwaffe or OKL) which had under its command four Air Fleets (Luftflotten) with their headquarters in Berlin (No. 1 ), Brunswick (No-2), Munich (No.3), and Vienna (No.4). The administration of the Air Fleets was carried out by the Air Region (Luftgau) headquarters which were based on various airfields. The fighting forces were formed into flying corps (Fliegerkorps) which were made up of a number of different types of flying unit according to the role that they had to play. The main unit within a Fliegerkorps was the Geschwader (no exact British equivalent existed). Each Geschwader had a staff unit and three or four groups (Gruppen) of three or four squadrons (Staffeln) of 10 to 12 aircraft each. The three types of Geschwader were Jagdgeschwader (single-seater fighters), Kampfgeschwader (bombers) and Stukageschwader (dive bombers). The aircraft strength of a Geschwader was go to 120 aircraft, which included a staff flight of four aircraft for the commander (Kommodore) and his adjutant, the staff major and the operations officer or ' I A' as he was known. Luftwaffe personnel numbered about 1,500,000 men at the beginning of the war: this included the large figure of 900,000 in the anti-aircraft artillery, 25,000 headquarters and administration staff, 50,000 aircrew and other flying personnel, 1 00,000 in air signals, 60,000 construction personnel and 80,000 in maintenance and supply, while the remainder were undergoing training. The Luftwaffe forces ranged against Poland on 1 September 1939 were divided into two air fleets. Luftflotte 1 was based in Pomerania, and Luftflotte 4 in Silesia. There were also two independent commands, the 2nd Air Division and the Air Command for Special Purposes (Fliegerfuhrer z.b.V.). Aircraft strength was about 850 bombers and dive-bombers and 400 fighters. In the first two days of the campaign these forces completely destroyed the Polish Air Force. When the campaign came to an end the Germans had lost 285aircraft and 734 airmen killed, wounded and missing. It had been a striking demonstration of air power. The X Fliegerkorps played a vital role in the invasion of Norway and Denmark. Its three principal tasks, which had to be carried out in close co-operation with the Army and Navy, were to secure air superiority, capture airfields so that transport aircraft could land troops and supplies, and lastly to prevent the Royal Navy from interfering with German naval operations. These tasks were reflected in the make-up of the forces used. Over half the available thousand aircraft were transports, while over one quarter were bombers. For the campaign in the West the Luftwaffe deployed 3,902 aircraft. Colonel-General Kesselring commanded Luftflotte 2 with I, IV and IX Fliegerkorps in support of General von Bock's Army Group B. Colonel-General Sperrle commanded Luftflotte 3 with II, V and VIII Fliegerkorps in support of General von Rundstedt's Army Group A. For the Battle of Britain which followed the defeat of France, the two air fleets mentioned above were joined by Colonel General Stumpffs Luftflotte 5 in Norway. The strength of the two air fleets based in France was as follows (with the numbers of aircraft serviceable and ready to fly in parenthesis) : • 809 (650) Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters; • 250 (170) Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighter-bombers; • 316 (250) Junkers Ju 87 (Stuka) dive-bombers; 1130 (770) bombers. The air fleet in Norway played a minor part in the Battle of Britain deploying these serviceable aircraft: 70 Bf 109 fighters, • 30 Bf 110 fighter-bombers and 95 bombers. Despite poor strategic handling of the Air Force by Goring during the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe aircrews conducted a gallant and skilful campaign against their British opponents. Indeed, in terms of tactical skill the British had much to learn and copied a number of German flying techniques and formations most notably the Schwarm formation (four planes flying as two pairs) instead of the 'Vic-3' (three planes in a `V' formation). Losses during the Battle of Britain are difficult to calculate, but were probably about 1700 fighters and bombers. Airborne Forces:The formation of parachute troops began almost simultaneously in both the German Army and Air Force. On 1 October 1935, General Goring's personal guard regiment, which originally had belonged to the Prussian Police, was transferred to the Luftwaffe as the General Goring Regiment. At the same time volunteers from the regiment were sent to Altengrabow training ground where the formation of the Luftwaffe's parachute rifle regiment was taking place. In Spring 1936 the Army established an experimental staff with 15 officers and 80 other ranks, which was to become the Army's parachute rifle battalion. During the occupation of the Sudetenland the battalion came under the tactical command of the Luftwaffe, and on 1 January 1939, the battalion was transferred to the Air Force. From then on the Luftwaffe assumed total responsibility for the recruitment, training, equipment and operational control of parachute troops, and Germany became the only country in which parachute troops were exclusively part of the Air Force. Although paratroops were part of the Luftwaffe, the other component element of Germany's airborne forces, the air landing troops, remained as part of the Army. Air landing troops were infantry soldiers trained in the skills of rapid airborne landings (as indeed their name suggested) and equipped with a number of specialised lightweight weapons. In July 1938 Major-General Student was transferred to the Luftwaffe from the Army, to undertake the development of the parachute troops, but by the time the Germans went to war in September 1939, the 7th Airborne (Flieger) Division was still in the process of formation. After a winter spent in further specialist training an air landing corps was formed from the 7th Airborne Division and the 22nd Infantry Division. Germany's parachute troops played a small, though successful, role in the Norwegian campaign which included the relief of General Dietl's beleagured command at Narvik. Some of the 'paratroopers' dropped during this operation were mountain soldiers who had undergone a seven-day parachuting course. The invasion of Holland and Belgium in 1940 saw the most spectacular triumph of this new arm when paratroops under the command of Major-General Student captured the modern Belgian fortress of Eben Emael and the bridges over the Albert Canal, the key points in the line of Belgian fortifications. The parachute division was similar in organisation to the infantry division with two or three parachute rifle regiments each of three battalions; an artillery regiment of two abteilungen equipped with 10.5cm recoiless guns and an anti-tank battalion armed with airborne 5cm guns or lightweight 7.5 cm guns. Uniforms: Members of the German Air Sport Association began to wear a blue-grey uniform in 1933, and since this organisation was to provide much of the cadre for the new German Air Force, it was both logical and economical that this existing uniform should form the basis of the new Luftwaffe uniform, which appeared in public for the first time in March 1935. The blue-grey uniform resembled that of the British Royal Air Force. Headgear consisted of a peaked cap with artificial mohair band, and a side cap; the tunic was worn open with shirt and tie, with either matching long trousers and black shoes or breeches with high boots; the greatcoat was also worn open and was double-breasted. The basic cut of the uniform was the same for all ranks, but whereas officers' uniforms were made of smooth cloth, issue uniforms were made of a coarser wool. One of the most comfortable and popular items of clothing was the so-called Fliegerbluse, which was a short jacket with concealed buttons and no breast pockets. It was designed to be worn under the flying suit, but was also often worn by aircrew instead of a flying suit or flying jacket. Working dress was either the natural-colored cotton drill uniform, or black working overalls. Officers also had a light-weight version of their service tunic or flying blouse, designed for everyday wear in warm weather, or for wear when working in an office. At the beginning of the war flight clothing consisted of a beige linen flying helmet and one-piece overall, while in cold weather there were both lined and unlined leather flying helmets and suits. Flying boots were made of black leather and suede and were lined with lambswool. Paratroops wore standard Luftwaffe uniform with a yellow arm-of-service colour since they were classified as flying troops. But as the first parachute troops had been formed by the Army, it was the Army that developed the special jump uniform. The first type included a cut-down version of the standard M1935 steel helmet, a loose-fitting olive-green smock which was designed to be worn over the equipment, and long field-grey trousers which were tucked into soft leather rubber-soled lace-up boots. When the Army parachute rifle battalion was transferred to the Luftwaffe this exerimental uniform underwent further development in the Luftwaffe, and was to become the model for the uniform of the British airborne forces. Insignia:While the Luftwaffe retained Army rank titles and rank badges in the form of Army shoulder straps, it also introduced two new systems of badges for wear on the collar patches and on the flying suit. Luftwaffe general officers were further distinguished by white lapels on the undress jacket and greatcoat, and white stripes (Lampassen) on the breeches and trousers. Arm of service was indicated by the colours (Waffenfarben) which appeared on the head-dress, on the collar patches and shoulder straps, and on the collar piping. A large percentage of Luftwaffe personnel were skilled tradesmen and they wore a badge on the lower left sleeve with an emblem which indicated their particular skill. Aircrew specialists wore a winged badge whereas ground crew wore circular ones. NAVYThe Treaty of Versailles strictly limited the size of the German Navy and forbade the design or construction of submarines, aircraft carriers, naval aircraft or heavy coastal artillery. The displacement of new vessels was limited to 10,000 tons. Hitler chose to ignore the restrictive terms of the treaty, but was also anxious to remain on good terms with England. On 18 June 1935 the Anglo-German Naval Treaty was signed and while this limited the strength of the German Navy to 35 per cent of that of the Royal Navy, it permitted Germany to have submarines and all the other types of ships forbidden her under the Treaty of Versailles. An ambitious programme of ship-building (the 'Z' plan) was set under way in 1937, and by September 1939 the German Navy comprised: • 2 old battleships; • 2 battlecruisers; • 3 pocket battleships; • 3 heavy cruisers; • 6 light cruisers; • 22 destroyers; • 20 torpedo boats; • 59 U-boats. Organisation:The German Navy was divided into three basic arms under the command of a leader (Fuhrer) or flag officer. The capital ships came under the direct control of the Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine (OKM) and then the group commands (Gruppenkommandos). The flotillas of minesweepers, patrol boats, coastal defence ships and auxiliaries of all types and sizes came under the naval security section. The third arm, which was to pose the greatest threat to the Allies at sea, was the submarine command. Volunteers and conscripts underwent their basic training in regiments (Schiffstammregimenter), while petty officers ( Unteroffiziere) received their training in NCO battalions (Marineunteroffizierlehrabteilungen). A pool of trained personnel was held in reserve units for assignment as and when required. The German and occupied foreign coastlines were defended by coastal artillery and anti-aircraft artillery battalions. There were no marines as such and personnel for combined operations or assignments on land were drawn either from the ship's company, or from the training and reserve units. By May 1941 the strength of the. Navy had reached 404,000 in all ranks. Unlike most of the other great navies, the Kriegsmarine did not have its own aircraft. An Air Force general was attached to OKM and was responsible for providing the Navy with its requirements in the air. The Fuhrer der Marineluftstreitkrafte was Major-General Geissler and both his aircraft and men were carefully selected for the special tasks they had to carry out. The war began with both remarkable success and significant failures. U-boats gained their first important victories (sinking the British vessels Courageous and Royal Oak), and magnetic mines presented the British with a nasty if only temporary shock. Naval units played an important part in the capture of the Polish coastal fortress at Westerplatte near Danzig; German ships safely transported German forces to Norway and German submarines threatened Britain's maritime life-lines. But in doing so the Germans lost three valuable capital ships and ten destroyers. The decisive battles of the sea war were still to come. Uniforms:The German uniform of World War II was basically the uniform introduced in 1848 for the Prussian Navy, and was based on that of the British Royal Navy. There were three main types of uniform: navy-blue, white for summer and tropical wear, and field-grey for land-based personnel. There was a whole range of protective clothing for extreme conditions ranging from the severe cold of the Arctic to the heat of the Mediterranean. The basic uniform for officers, petty officers and cadets is illustrated by figure 13 while the regulation greatcoat is shown by figure 12, although it shows the pattern with blue lapels which was worn only by flag officers. Ratings wore the cap with blue or white top; the white top was discontinued at the beginning of the war. This cap fell into general disuse except as walking-out and full-dress head-gear. During the war the most common type of head-dress for all ranks was the side or boarding cap. The basic uniform for ratings in wartime is shown in figure 15.Petty officers wore a cap with black peak and chin strap, a double-breasted reefer jacket with shoulder straps, white shirt, black tie and long trousers with black shoes. Sailors serving in land-based units or in landing parties wore standard Navy uniform depending on the season or climate but with a steel helmet and Army personal equipment, as well as trousers rolled up to mid calf and worn outside the marching boots. From 1938 personnel in naval artillery units, NCO training battalions and, later on, members of the Naval Air Spotting Company were issued with a field-grey uniform which closely resembled that of the German Army except that all buttons, badges and lace were in gilt or yellow, as opposed to grey and silver. Insignia:Officers were identified by the pattern of embroidery on the cap peak, the number and width of the gold lace rings on the reefer cuffs, or by the shoulder straps on the greatcoat and field-grey uniform. Petty officers and cadets wore their rank badges in the form of shoulder straps on the reefer, while ratings wore chevrons on the upper left sleeve of the jumper and pea jacket. (See rank insignia chart.) There was no arm-of-service designation as such in the Navy, but the special skills and trades held by ratings were identified by the badges worn on the upper left sleeve. Administrative officials wore silver buttons, badges and lace. On the field-grey uniform, officers displayed their branch-of-service colour and badge on the Army-pattern shoulder straps. COLOUR CHARTS PHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 17:51:37 GMT 1
Rzeczpospolita PolskaRepublic of PolandARMY The Polish national Army came into existence after World War I, and, like all the armies of the newly-independent states which emerged at this time, it was equipped from the dumps of the vanquished. not until 1937 was a programme of modernisation undertaken, and when war came two years later, the Polish Army was still basically obsolete; but although lacking in modern equipment and under poor strategic direction, the Polish Army fought bravely. In 1939, as Europe moved towards war, the Polish government ordered partial mobilisation in March and August, and then, on August 30, 1939, general mobilisation was declared. Along her western frontiers Poland deployed seven armies and a tactical group which accounted for over half her infantry divisions and nearly three-quarters of her cavalry brigades. The remainder of the Army was in the process of formation and was to be used as reinforcements and operational reserves. At dawn on September 1, 1939 German forces swept into Poland in the first blitzkrieg of the war. For 36 days the Polish armed forces put up a bitter resistance, despite their lack of modern weapons and equipment, and yet the lack of any real understanding of modern warfare (grand strategy to minor tactics was based on those of the French Army) by the Polish Army made defeat inevitable. Casualties were high: 66,300 killed, 130,000 wounded and over 700,000 prisoners-of-war. 147,000 escaped from Poland to Pribaltica in Romania, Hungary and Slovakia. Organisation:The President of the Republic was the Commander-in-Chief of an army of 1,500,000 soldiers. Its frontline strength of 900,000 men was organised in: • 39 infantry divisions (including reserve divisions) ; • 11 cavalry brigades; • 2 motorised brigades; • a variable number of infantry brigades. 4500 guns and mortars, 2000 anti-tank and 3000 anti-aircraft guns. The infantry division comprised 515 officers, 16,000 soldiers, 7,000 horses, divided into three regiments of infantry and a regiment of light or field artillery plus the usual divisional services which included a reconnaissance unit with a company of TKS tankettes. A division usually had 320 light machine guns(wz.28 "Browning", also known as "Bar") 132 heavy machine guns (wz.30 "Browning"), 81 grenade launchers, 20 mortars, 92 wz. 35 AT rifles. Divisional artillery totalled 79 pieces, of which 27 were AT guns and 4 were AA guns. Infantry field guns were 75mm Shneider wz. 97. In a small number of active divisions a heavy artillery group (of 105mm guns and 155mm howitzers) was included. Line infantry and mountain rifle regiments had a regimental staff, three infantry battalions, an administrative company, a pioneer platoon, and a signals company. They had an establishment strength of 1900 officers and men armed with Mauser wz. 29 rifles or 9 mm Vis wz. 35 pistols. Support weapons were: • 90 light machine guns (Browning wz. 28) ; • 36 heavy machine guns (Browning wz. 30); • 27 light mortars; • 6 heavy mortars; • 2 field guns; • 9 anti-tank guns. Polish infantry regiments were poorly equipped, both in quality and quantity of artillery support weapons, compared to their German counterparts. The Polish reliance on offensive tactics only exposed more cruelly this weakness. The various types of artillery were field, mountain, horse, heavy, extra heavy, and anti-aircraft. A field artillery regiment had a staff, a signals troop and three batteries each of three troops of four guns (24 x 75mm wz. 1897/17 and 12 x 100mm Austro-Hungarian wz. 14 howitzers). Artillery was mostly horsedrawn with the exception of the anti-aircraft guns which were motorised. Mountain artillery had the same basic organisation except that a regiment had no signals section. The 65 mm and 75 mm mountain guns were carried on horseback, while the 100 mm howitzer was drawn by a two wheeled cart and two horses. At all levels, the Polish army was short of artillery, a weakness particularly marked in the larger formations which rarely possessed a full complement of heavy guns. Polish artillery had enough ammunition for 15 days of war, while the rest of the ammunition had to be delivered after the war had broken out - which was the reason of chaos in the rear areas of armies, as many depots never delivered ammunition to units who needed. This was also the reason of few shoots per cannon during day. One example from the siege of Warsaw, when the Germans on September 26 fired more artillery shells than the defenders were able to shoot during whole siege. The Polish Army had a small tank force but the Polish High Command had little experience in the handling of tanks with the result that in 1939 Polish armoured units were soon overwhelmed by the German panzers. In 1939 the Polish armoured forces consisted of: • 170 11-ton 7TP light tanks (armed with a 37mm Bofors gun); • 50 Vickers six-ton tanks; • 67 Renault FT- 17 light tanks (of World War I vintage) ; • about 700 TK/TKS tankettes and 100 armoured cars. In addition there were 53 Renault R-35 light tanks which did not take part in the fighting and were withdrawn to Romania. Characteristic of the Polish army was the size and prestige of the cavalry. There were 210 squadrons, consisting of three regiments of light cavalry, 2-7 regiments of lancers and 10 regiments of mounted rifles. The 11 cavalry brigades were intended to play an important strategic role, although in fact they were unable to do so (partly because they were badly positioned at the outbreak of hostilities) and they proved extremely vulnerable. Pride in the cavalry tradition (many troopers continued to carry lances) and personal bravery were unavailing against the apparatus of modern war. The organisation of the cavalry brigades varied somewhat but normally conformed to the pattern given in the diagram overleaf. There were either three or four cavalry regiments; a large battery of horse artillery and a rifle battalion as well as the normal brigade services, including a small tank unit. At full strength a four-regiment brigade had 6911 men and 273 officers. Support weapons were: • 16 x 75 mm guns; • 18 x 37 mm anti-tank guns; • 2 x 4o mm anti-aircraft guns', • 2 x 81 mm mortars; • 9 x 50mm mortars. Uniforms:The uniform of the Polish Army was originally introduced in 1919, gradually improved and standardised in the 1920s and modified again in 1935: it was this uniform that was worn in the brief 1939 campaign. The uniform was highly standardised and existed in five basic patterns: for officers, dismounted personnel mounted personnel, mountain troops and armoured vehicle crews. The basic service dress for officers is illustrated by figure 17. For undress occasions the breeches and boots were replaced by long khaki trousers with stripes and black leather undress ankle boots. The greatcoat for all ranks was khaki, single-breasted with a large pointed fall collar, and had matching pointed shoulder straps and turn-back cuffs with tab and two buttons. Cavalry wore very long greatcoats which almost touched the ground. Infantrymen and all dismounted personnel wore the uniform illustrated by figure 19. With orders of dress not requiring a steel helmet, soldiers normally wore a khaki side cap, or a soft version of the square-topped czapka. Personal equipement was based on the German pattern. Mounted personnel wore the basic khaki uniform but retained the French Adrian pattern steel helmet, and were issued with riding breeches and high boots. The units forming the 1 1 th Carpathian Mountain Division had two distinctive items of uniform. The first was a circular khaki felt hat, not unlike the British steel helmet in shape, and the second a long khaki cape which was worn over the left shoulder. Personnel in armoured units wore the basic khaki uniform but when serving with their armoured vehicles they wore either a black beret or the French-pattern tank helmet (as in figure 20) and a one-piece khaki overall and brown leather gauntlets. Officers had a three-quarter length black leather coat with black cloth collar and shoulder straps. Insignia:Rank badges were worn on the head-dress and on the shoulder straps (see insignia chart). General officers were distinguished by silver zigzag embroidery on the cap band, collar patches, shoulder straps and cuffs, and by dark blue stripes on the breeches and long trousers. Arm-of-service and regimental colours appeared on the cap band and collar patches, which were in the form of lance pennants for all cavalry and armoured units, while those for all other units followed the shape of the collar points in the French manner. These were sometimes adorned by a small white metal badge which identified special appointments, trades, or units. AIR FORCE The Polish Air Force dated in embryonic form from the end of World War I; from even before Poland gained her independence. In December 1918 Polish airmen who had served in the French, Austrian and Imperial Russian air forces swore allegiance to the Polish Republic. In September 1919 a Commander-in-Chief was appointed and a re-organisation undertaken which established the Air Force as a part of the Army, and not an independent service. Shortly before the war, the Polish airforce was moved from the main airfields to field airfields. As a result of this, all of the aircraft actually destoryed on the ground were old planes and old equipment, and only one time during the whole campaign the Germans were able to destroy as many as 19 Polish aircraft on a field airfield - with artillery fire. Between 1 and September 6, 1939 the Air Force was able to put up a coherent air defence, but was soon completely overwhelmed by both the quantity and quality of German aircraft, and disorganised by the surprise strafing of the airfields at the onset of offensive operations Further re-organisations and change of bases only added to the break down of organisation and supply, and lack of fuel and liaison made further resistance virtually impossible, although isolated units continued to attack German ground forces whenever they could. Polish air-to-air victories summed with 97 German and 4 Russian planes shot down. The Poles, as all pilots around the world, would sometimes count one plane two times by mistake, as there was no way to check what pilot destroyed what plane. Also, the acceleration of the Bf 109 - which made big, dark exhauston fumes - were taken also as a destroyed plane. Germans were masters of repaires and were able to recover half of the tanks destroyed on the battlefield. The same was made with planes: - Germans completely lost 258 planes - Damaged: 263 Summed up: 521 planes This are planes counted from air fights and anti-air defences at Warsaw, as there is not many sources about other defense points or divisional anti-aircraft artillery, however due to small number of guns available, the numbers would not be much bigger. At the same time 60% of damaged planes didn't come back into service and real number of lost planes were 415 from all reasons - 1 plane for a 80 fligts. When Poland capitulated on October 5, she had lost 327 machines, while 98 were evacuated to Romania. Organisation:The Air Force was commanded by the Aviation Commander with the rank of general, who was directly subordinate to the Ministry of Military Affairs. At the end of 1937 an Air Staff was formed within the General Staff, but it was to act independently of the Aviation Commander. In the Spring of 1939 an operational plan was undertaken which entailed a re-grouping of aircraft into two formations. The bulk of the aircraft were distributed amongst the individual armies along the German border and formed the Army Air Force while a central reserve was held back under the control of the Commander-in-Chief and was known as the Dispositional Air Force. Each army had from three to seven squadrons of reconnaissance, light-bomber and fighter planes acting in a localised ground support role. The Dispositional Air Force comprised 145 aircraft, organised in: • 1 pursuit brigade of 5 fighter squadrons; • 1 bomber/reconnaissance brigade of 8 squadrons; • 1 observation squadron; • 4 liaison squadrons. On September 1, 1939 the frontline strength of the Polish Air Force was 433 aircraft: 59 fighters, 154 bombers, 84 observation machines with negligible armament, and 36 liaison aircraft. Uniforms:The military aviation of the Polish Army began to replace its Army uniforms with a blue-grey design in 1936. The new uniform was to be worn by all officers and regular NCOs by 1 April 1938. The service dress for officers is illustrated by figure 2 1; the greatcoat was grey, double-breasted and with two rows of three white metal buttons. Generals, staff officers and cadets wore the same badges on the greatcoat collar as on the tunic collar. The tunic for other ranks was worn with closed collar and matching pantaloons or long trousers. Working dress was officially as shown in figure 23, although more typical working dress was probably a crumpled pair of overalls. In warm weather an unlined beige flying suit as illustrated by figure 22 was worn, and in colder weather both a lined and unlined leather flying suit, or a three-quarter-length black leather French-pattern flying coat. Insignia:Rank badges were worn on the head-dress (peaked cap and beret), on the shoulder straps of the tunic and greatcoat, and on the upper left sleeve of the flying suit. Certain categories of officers wore white metal badges on the tunic and greatcoat collar. Medical officials wore cherry coloured cloth as backing to their rank distinction braid on the peaked cap, and as lace on the tunic cuffs and trousers. Administrative officials wore royal blue as their arm-of-service colour. NAVY At the Treaty of Versailles Poland was granted some ninety miles of Baltic coastline. The great port of Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a Free City, so the Poles had to construct a large modern naval complex at Gdynia to the west of Danzig. Fortifications with coastal artillery were built at Westerplatte and Hel. The 180-man garrison of the naval fortress at Westerplatte resisted German air and sea bombardment and attacks from German naval landing parties until forced to surrender on 13 September. Thedefence of the Hel Peninsula continued until 1 October when ammunition ran out; 3200 soldiers and sailors were taken prisoner, and they left behind over 200 dead and wounded. At sea the Polish Navy had four destroyers, five submarines, one minelayer, six minesweepers and two gun boats. On the eve of the German invasion three of the destroyers and the submarines were ordered to sail to England. After a difficult and dangerous voyage the destroyers and two submarines reached Leith in Scotland on 1 September 1939. The three remaining submarines were unable to break out of the Baltic Sea, and were interned in Sweden. Organisation:The flag officer commanding the Polish Fleet was Vice Admiral J. Unrug. The main naval ports were Gdynia, Oksyvie and Rozewie. In 1939 the strength of the navy was about 400 officers and 4000 ratings. There were no marines as such in the Polish Navy, but there was one naval infantry regiment. Uniforms:Polish Navy uniforms were very similar to those worn in most other navies, and were based on regulations issued in 1920, 1922, 1927 and 1930. The uniform for officers is illustrated in the photograph, while cadets and chief petty officers wore the same basic uniform with special rank distinctions (see insignia chart). In hot weather these ranks could wear a white cap cover, white tunic with stand collar, long white trousers and white canvas shoes. Ratings wore the uniform illustrated by figure 24, although personal equipement and white gaiters were only worn by landing parties or on ceremonial occasions. In cold weather sailors and petty officers had a three-quarter-length pea-coat, while they also received a white uniform for summer and tropical wear. Working dress was a white American pattern hat and off-white linen jumper and trousers. Petty officers wore a peaked cap and a single-breasted blue tunic with stand collar, patch pockets and five buttons on the front of the tunic. Insignia:Rank was indicated by the number and width of the gold lace stripes on the cuffs and shoulder straps of officers, chief petty officers and petty officers. Officers also had rows of gold braid on the cap peak (gold zigzag embroidery for admirals), and tiny five-pointed gold stars on the chin strap so that it was possible to tell the rank of an officer by looking at his cap. This was useful since Navy personnel often wore protective clothing which did not display badges of rank. From 30 November 1938 corps and branch colours appeared as backing or 'lights' (the coloured cloth which appeared between the rows of rank distinction lace on the cuffs and shoulder straps). Seamen wore trade and speciality badges in red on the upper left sleeve, while petty officers had yellow badges. COLOUR CHARTS PHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:08:44 GMT 1
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandARMY On September 2, 1939, the day before England declared war on Germany, a small military advance party was flown to France, and soon after this the British Expeditionary Force began crossing the Channel. By September 27, 152,031 soldiers, 21,424 vehicles and all the necessary weapons and stores had arrived in France. A general headquarters was established near Arras while the British I Corps (1st and 2nd Divisions) took their places in the line along the Franco-Belgian frontier east of Lille. As agreed between the British and French governments the BEF came under overall command of the French Commander-in-Chief of the North East Theatre of Operations (General Georges), but the British commander, General Gort, reserved the right to appeal to the British Government if he thought any order given to him might imperil the BEF. For the next six months little military action took place except a minor, halfhearted French offensive in the Saar region. The BEF trained, consolidated its position, and built up its depots and dumps. From November, by arrangement with the French, one British division at a time served for a short spell under French command on the Saar front to get experience. By the end of April 1940, the strength of the BEF was 394, 165 men. When war did begin in earnest on 10 May 1940 the small British contingent was unable to stem the rapid German advance: within two weeks the BEF was forced back towards the Channel coast and Operation 'Dynamo' - the evacuation from Dunkirk - was put into effect. Largely through the efforts of the French Army in holding back German forces (as well as Hitler's controversial order to halt the Panzers outside Dunkirk) 224,320 British (including 15,850 wounded) and 141,842 Allied soldiers were evacuated. Although Dunkirk was the last act of a major British defeat, the escape from France of over a third of a million trained soldiers was a great achievement and a considerable boost to sagging British morale. 3457 members of the BEF were killed during the campaign in France, and although the British role in the fighting was only a minor one many German soldiers had been impressed by the disciplined performance of the British troops. Adolf Hitler, made this comment on the British Army: The British soldier has retained the characteristics which he had in World War I. Very brave and tenacious in defence, unskilful in attack, wretchedly commanded. Weapons and equipment are of the highest order, but the overall organisation is bad. Organisation:he King, with the rank of Field Marshal, was the titular head of the Army but actual control of Britain's military strength was exercised by the Army Council, a body established in February 1904. The Council had both civil and military members under its president the Secretary of State for War. The members, whose task was collectively to advise the Secretary of State, were the Parliamentary Under-Secretary, the Financial Secretary of the War Office, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, the Adjutant-General to the Forces, the Quarter-Master General to the Forces, and one Civil Service member, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War. In addition to their collective responsibility the members of the Army Council were also responsible individually for the operation of their respective departments within the War Office. The Department of the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, for example, contained the Directorates of Military Operations, Military Intelligence, and Military Training, while the Adjutant-General's Department housed the Directorates of Recruiting and Organisation, Mobilisation, and Personal Services. The Chief of the Imperial General Staff as the senior military officer represented the Army on the Chiefs of Staff Committee which reported to the three Service Ministers and the Defence Committee. In 1939 the regular British Army had a strength of 227,000 men, inclusive of British troops in India and Burma, and was organised in: • 2 regiments of the Household Cavalry; • 20 regiments of cavalry of the line; • 5 regiments of foot guards; • 64 regiments of infantry of the line; • the Royal Artillery; • the Royal Tank Regiment; • auxiliary units and services. This force was supported by the Territorial Army which had a strength of 204,000 officers and men organised in a field force of nine infantry divisions, one mobile division, two cavalry brigades, and an anti-aircraft corps of five divisions. During 1939, there was a massive increase in the size of the Territorial Army as it was put on a war footing and by August it numbered 428,000 men. This rapid growth was the result of a surge in volunteer recruitment, the recall of reservists and the imposition in May of compulsory service. The United Kingdom was divided into six geographical Army Commands, two Independent Districts, and one functional command responsible for anti-aircraft defence. The geographical commands were the Aldershot, Southern, Eastern, Northern, Western, and Scottish Commands, with the London District and the Northern Ireland District. The Commands were divided into a series of areas and zones depending upon the importance and number of troops stationed within them. A General Officer Commanding-in-Chief was responsible for each Command and the overall framework was controlled by the General Headquarters of the Commander-in-chief, Home Forces. The troops within each command were organised in corps, divisions, and brigades or as depots and training establishments. In peacetime, Aldershot was the premier Army Command with two regular divisions stationed there, while Southern, Eastern, and Northern ommands each had one regular division. Each Command also contained three or four Territorial Army Divisions which were administered to a large extent by the Territorial County Associations. When hostilities began the Territorial Army merged with the regular Army but all subsequent expansion was based on the Territorials and all recruits whether volunteers or conscripts were deemed to have enlisted in the Territorial Army. As in all other armies the infantry division was the basic formation of the British Army. Divided into three infantry brigades with three regiments of field artillery and supporting units the division totalled 13,600 men. Despite its relatively small size the British division was exceptionally well equipped, particularly in artillery with 36 x 18 pounders, 36 x 4.5 inch howitzers (or converted I8/25 pounders), and 48 x 2 pounders (or 25 mm) anti-tank guns as well as the three brigade anti-tank companies. The divisional cavalry regiment had under its command 28 light tanks and 44 Universal (Bren) carriers. The infantry battalion (33 officers and 780 men) was divided into four rifle companies (each with a headquarters and three platoons) and a headquarters company of six platoons (signals, anti-aircraft, mortar, carrier, pioneer and administration). In wartime the battalion and the brigade were the basic tactical formations; the infantry regiment being an administrative unit. Besides the field artillery regiments, there were the larger calibre medium and heavy artillery regiments. The medium artillery regiment had a strength of 650 men and two batteries each of eight guns, either 6 inch howitzers or 6o pounders. The heavy artillery regiment (700 men) had one four-gun battery of 6 inch howitzers and three four-gun batteries of 8 inch or 9.2 inch howitzers. The largest tank formation in the British Army was the armoured division which comprised two armoured brigades, an artillery support group and two motorised infantry battalions. A typical armoured brigade would be made up of three armoured regiments each consisting of a headquarters squadron and three tank squadrons adding up to a total of 52 cruiser tanks, 10 scout cars and 575 men. Uniforms:At the beginning of the war the uniform of the British Army was undergoing a major change. In 1937 a new field uniform consisting of a baggy waist-length `blouse' and long baggy trousers gathered at the ankle began to be introduced under the name of 'battledress'. Although impractical and difficult to wear smartly, it was both easy to manufacture and required comparatively little cloth. At the same time a lightweight version made of denim was introduced as a working dress and summer battledress. While the battledress was being issued soldiers continued to wear the old khaki service dress, illustrated by figure 63. Officers wore their own version which had an open tunic for wear with collar and tie, and pantaloons which tended to look like golfers' knickerbockers. Mounted officers continued to wear beige cord breeches and brown leather field boots with spurs. With the introduction of battledress for all ranks the officers' service dress was reserved for more formal occasions. The greatcoat for all ranks was doublebreasted, although the old single-breasted pattern for other ranks continued in use. There were no variations of the battledress as such, but the blouse could be worn with tartan kilt or trews in those regiments which traditionally wore them. Officers wore the peaked, service dress cap, the side or field service cap in regimental or corps colours with the badge on the left front, or any other form of head-dress prescribed by individual units, such as the glengarry, Tam o'Shanter or coloured beret. The standard head-dress for other ranks was the khaki field service cap, or stiff khaki peaked cap for those in the Guards or Military Police. Crews of armoured fighting vehicles wore the black beret and overalls of the Royal Tank Corps, but as more and more cavalry regiments were mechanised an increasing number of colourful and distinctive head-dresses began to adorn the heads of armoured car crews. Insignia:Rank was indicated by the pattern of embroidery on the cap badge for general and staff officers, and by the metal or cloth rank badges which were worn on the shoulder straps by all commissioned ranks. Warrant officers wore their rank badges on the lower sleeves, while other ranks wore theirs on both upper sleeves. The primary means of identifying corps, regiment, or arm of service in the British Army was the badge which appeared on the front of the peaked cap or beret and on the left front of the field service cap. A reduced version of the same badge was worn on the collar of the service dress jacket. On the service dress tunic for other ranks, the regiment or corps was identified by the buttons and metal shoulder titles. On the battledress all ranks wore cloth formation signs and shoulder flashes below which appeared a strip of cloth in the arm-of-service colour. THE HOME GUARD The German invasion of Holland and Belgium focused attention upon the use of paratroops to occupy areas behind the enemy's main defence lines and it seemed highly probable that this form of attack would be employed against Britain. As a precaution Anthony Eden, the Secretary of State for War, broadcast an appeal on 14 May 1940 for fit men between the ages of 16 and 65 to enrol in a military organisation which would be known as the Local Defence Volunteers (LDV). By 20 May nearly 250,000 volunteers had come forward and by the end of the month the figure had reached 300,000. The force was to be organised in conjunction with the Territorial County Associations and came under the operational command of the C-in-C, Home Forces. On 31 July 1940 the title of the force was changed to the Home Guard. The immediate problem faced by The Home Guard was an acute shortage of arms, uniform and equipment. There were military rifles for only one-third of the Guard and the remainder had to make do for many months with shotguns, sporting rifles, and even golf clubs and home-made pikes. The Home Guard were unpaid and were required for duty and training only after working hours. They were organised as battalions, companies, and platoons but there was no fixed size for these units and a company could be 300 or 400 men strong. Commanders of units were not commissioned officers but holders of appointments and every man whatever his rank was subject to Military Law as a private soldier. The Home Guard was dispersed through the country and each city, town and village had its contingent. Their duties consisted of guarding important buildings, road junctions, railways and factories, and patrolling coastal areas where enemy landings might be made. By the end of July 1940 the Home Guard numbered 500,000 all ranks and during the invasion months of that year its presence and enthusiasm not only helped to inspire the population of Britain but also relieved large numbers of regular troops from the distraction of guard and garrison duties. Some of the American residents of London volunteered for service in the Local Defence Volunteers. They then formed themselves into the 1st American Squadron of the Home Guard which became known as the 'Red Eagles'. Some 128 Americans served in this unit during the whole of World War II, and not only provided their own motor vehicles, but purchased their own 'Tommy Guns'. Uniforms: At first, Local Defence Volunteers wore their everyday clothes and a khaki armlet on the upper right arm, with the letters LDV in black. Former soldiers, particularly officers, wore their old uniforms although this practice, together with the wearing of insignia of former regiments or corps on Home Guard uniform, was actively discouraged. As soon as was possible, Home Guard members began to be issued with denims and, later, battledress so that gradually they received the same kit as a serving soldier. Equipment was at first of the so-called Home Guard Pattern with leather waistbelt and straps, web pouches and special pattern water bottle and haversack. Insignia:The first insignia proper to be issued was the 'Home Guard' armlet, and large letters cut from coloured cloth to denote the zone ('S' for South for instance), but these were soon changed to a regional patch above another which bore the battalion number. Home Guard staff attached to district commands wore the formation sign of the command. A few Home Guard units in coastal areas adopted naval rig on which they wore their Home Guard insignia. THE AUXILIARY TERRITORIAL SERVICEWomen in uniform, first in the Women's Legion and later in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (formed in 1917), had made a significant contribution to Britain's military performance during World War I. As the possibility of war with Germany became more certain in the late 1930s consideration was once again given to the employment of women in the Army. The formation of the Auxiliary Territorial Service received Royal Assent on g September 1938 and it was planned to raise 20,000 women volunteers between the ages of 18 and 50 who would be attached in companies to Territorial Army units. Although they wore uniform the women of the ATS were not at this stage subject to military law and they were employed as orderlies, cooks, drivers, and clerks with the official status of camp followers. On general mobilisation the recruitment limit of 20,000 was raised to 40,000 but the only additional tasks entrusted to the ATS were those of signal duties, and all officers and other ranks remained civilians. In Spring 1940 a number of ATS telephonists and drivers arrived in France for service with the BEF's lines of communication. After Dunkirk the acute manpower shortage brought home to the Army the importance of the role women could play. The establishment of the ATS was raised to 200,000 and in April 1941 its members were given full military status although only a modified form of the Army Act was applied to women. The area of employment in which women could be used within the Army was expanded to over one hundred occupations including many of the more skilled trades such as service at searchlight, radar and artillery stations. The ATS was not, however, integrated into the Army and it developed its own organisation and administrative system based on platoons, companies, and groups. Platoons contained from 23 to 75 women, two to five platoons made up a company, and groups were formed of varying numbers of companies with the proviso that each group must have a minimum strength of 250 women. Groups were usually formed geographically to conform as far as possible to the boundaries of the military area in which they operated. By the end of December 1941 the overall strength of the Service stood at 2468 officers and 81,965 other ranks. ROYAL AIR FORCEDuring the inter-war years the British Government tried to maintain an Air Force with a merely defensive capacity, but when, in October 1938, a re-armament programme was initiated it provided for a large expansion of the Royal Air Force, so that it could not only continue to defend Great Britain, but also carry offensive operations into Germany should the need arise. Since the British Government did not wish to get involved in land warfare on the Continent, no consideration was given to providing air support, or for the dispatch of large air forces overseas. The initial establishment of the BEF, however, included a so-called Air Component of two bomber-reconnaissance squadrons, four fighter squadrons, six Army co-operation squadrons, and two flights of an HQ communication squadron. In addition it was agreed with the French government that an Advanced Air Striking Force of medium bombers from Bomber Command would operate from France, but would not be under the operational command of the BEF. By 27 September 1939 RAF personnel in France numbered some 9392 men. In January 1940 it was decided to unite the Air Component and the Advanced Air Striking Force under the command of the Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief British Air Forces in France, Air Marshal Barratt. As soon as possible after its arrival in France, the RAF took part in operations which brought it in contact with German aircraft. Although a number of German machines were shot down, RAF losses were heavy as many of their planes (the Fairey Battles and Blenheims for example) were found to be inadequately armed and ill-suited to combat with modern fighter planes like the Messerschmitt Bf 109. Britain was anxious not to squander its precious aircraft by using them as a sort of fire brigade at the beck and call of the Allied land forces. The RAF wanted to ensure that its bombers were only used to cause maximum destruction to the enemy, although strategic bombing of targets in Germany was only authorised on 15 May 1 940 Fighters based in France and England were to be deployed against the enemy as long as it did not impair Britain's ability to defend herself. On 10 May 1940, 416 of Britain's total number of 1873 first-line aircraft were stationed in France, but on 20 May it was decided to bring back to England the remaining 66 fighters so that they could continue the war from English airfields. The first phase of the German plan for the invasion of England was to gain control of the air and so during the months of July and August 1940 the RAF prepared its forces for the inevitable battle against the LuftwafFe. The main defence possessed by the British was RAF Fighter Command which was under the inspired leadership of Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding. The country was divided into four large areas to be defended by fighter Groups, the most important being II Group under the command of Air Vice-Marshal Keith Park. This Group covered London, the Home Counties and south-east England, the fighting areas of the Battle of Britain. Underneath the Group was the sector (nine in I I Group) which would control anything from two to five squadrons. In some sectors all the squadrons would be based on the one airfield, in others they would be spread out over as many as four airfields. A typical sector was Northolt which was organised as follows: No. 1 Sqdn - Io Hurricanes; No.275 Sqdn - 13 Hurricanes; No. 604 Sqdn - 10 Blenheims; No. 609 Sqdn - 15 Spitfires. By the end of July the RAF had 530 fighter aircraft ready for combat out of a total of just over 600, with another 289 fighters in reserve. The RAF had considerable advantages over the Luftwaffe, the chief of these being a flexible command structure which ensured resources were not wasted; an integrated radar system which usually enabled RAF fighter pilots to intercept the German bomber squadrons; and the advantage of fighting over home territory. The margin of the RAF's victory over the German Air Force was slim but it was sufficient to deter the Wehrmacht from seriously contemplating an invasion of Britain. Uniforms:Before the war the RAF uniform was basically the same as that of the Army but in blue-grey, although unlike the Army, all ranks in the RAF had an open tunic which was worn with collar and tie. In 1940 a blue-grey version of the battle-dress began to be issued. Officers wore the service dress consisting of peaked or field service cap with cloth covered peak, black mohair band and gold-embroidered badge. The tunic was worn open with blue shirt and black tie and long matching trousers with black socks and shoes. The greatcoat was double-breasted with matching cloth belt, and in addition there was both a mackintosh and raincoat. Other ranks wore the uniform illustrated by figure 75, although the most typical form of head-dress was the field service cap, or stiff peaked cap with metal cap badge. In wartime, RAF personnel were issued with the Mk I steel helmet and 1937 pattern webbing in blue-grey. The working dress of ground crews was a field service cap and dark blue or black overalls. Flying clothing is illustrated by figures 71 to 74. Insignia: The RAF was unique in introducing not only a new system of rank insignia, but also a range of special rank titles. Officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs of the tunic and on the greatcoat shoulder straps. NCOs wore chevrons on both sleeves of the tunic and greatcoat. Contrary to the practice in most other Air Forces there were no special rank badges for wear on flight clothing. There were no arm-of-service or branch badges as such, but a number of specialists were identified by special insignia, some of which appear in the illustrations. ROYAL NAVY From the outbreak of war the Royal Navy was engaged in action throughout the world. The hunt for the Graf Spee, for example, tied up large numbers of British naval forces in the South Atlantic, until the German battlecruiser was scuttled in the River Plate on 19 December 1939, In home waters, the Navy played an important role in the defence of Norway, inflicting heavy casualties on the German forces. The major work of the Navy, however, was the protection of British merchant vessels from the ever-present threat of the German U-boats which, even in the first months of the war, were causing heavy losses. At the beginning of the War, the Royal Navy was the most powerful in the world. It had the largest number of ships and a network of naval bases and coaling stations around the globe. This massive organisation was directed from offices in Whitehall by the Board of Admiralty. The chairman of the board was officially titled First Lord of the Admiralty and was a political appointee responsible to the cabinet and to Parliament. Professional expertise was provided by the five Sea Lords, all serving officers in the Royal Navy. The First Sea Lord, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Dudley Pound was responsible for running the Navy's operations throughout the world, and was assisted in this by a naval staff. He was also the Royal Navy's representative on the joint Chiefs of Staff Committee together with the heads of the Army and Air Force. Before mobilisation the strength of the Navy was 9762 officers and 109,170 ratings. In January 1939 there were in addition 51,485 men in the Royal Fleet Reserve, 10,038 in the Royal Naval Reserve (mainly serving in the Merchant Navy), 2049 in the Royal Navy Auxiliary Sick Berth and Wireless Auxiliary reserves, and 6180 in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve. Royal Navy dispositions in European waters in September 1939 were as follows: Home Fleet (Admiral Sir Charles Forbes) based at Scapa Flow; • 7 battleships and battlecruisers; • 2 aircraft carriers; • 15 cruisers; • 17 destroyers; • 7 minesweepers and sloops; • 21 submarines. North Atlantic Command (Rear-Admiral N. A. Wodehouse) -responsible for waters west of Gibraltar: • 2 cruisers; • 9 destroyers; • 2 submarines; • 2 minesweepers. Concentrated in home waters for patrol, escort and striking purposes were: • 2 battleships; • 5 cruisers; • 2 aircraft carriers; • 65 destroyers; • 12 minesweepers. Escort vessels served worldwide, while a number of ships of all types were undergoing refit, were in reserve, or being used on miscellaneous duties such as training. Captains commanded battleships, battlecruisers, cruisers and aircraft carriers, which were organised in squadrons of between two and nine ships under a rear-admiral. Eight destroyers, each in the charge of a commander, plus a specially fitted leader commanded by a captain, usually comprised a flotilla. All smaller warships were grouped in flotillas, usually under a captain or commander with subordinate officers commanding individual ships. Since 1937 (although in practice only since May 1939) the Royal Navy had maintained its own Naval Air Branch under its chief, Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Ramsey. The Fleet Air Arm as it was known went to war with 190 aeroplanes in aircraft and seaplane carriers; plus spotter floatplanes mounted on catapults in capital ships and cruisers. Throughout the war, RAF Coastal Command operated reconnaissance, escort and strike squadrons. From April 1941, they came under the operational control of the Admiralty while remaining part of the RAF. Uniforms: Royal Navy uniform, which had evolved over many years, became the model for the uniforms of most of the world's navies during the nineteenth century. The basic uniform for officers consisted of a peaked cap which could be worn with a white cover; double-breasted `reefer' jacket which was worn with white shirt and black tie; matching long trousers and black socks and shoes. The greatcoat was double-breasted and was worn with brown leather. gloves. The uniform for chief petty officers was similar to that of commissioned officers, while the so-called 'fore and aft' rig was also worn by petty officers and other junior ratings who were not members of the seaman branch. Ratings wore the 'square rig' illustrated by figure 78, but instead of the short winter coat found in some navies, ratings received a single-breasted greatcoat. For everyday work ratings wore a blue boiler-suit, or one of the many other different types of protective clothing. In cold weather ratings received a thick white woollen pullover and sea socks for wear inside rubber boots, a knitted woollen cap comforter and the famous duffle coat. In rough seas sailors wore waterproof clothing, notably the oilskin 'sou'wester' and coat. Insignia: Both flag and senior officers were identified by gold embroidery on the cap peak, while all officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs of the reefer jacket or on the greatcoat shoulder straps. Officers in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve had `wavy' rank distinction lace, while Royal Naval Reserve officers had plaited rank distinction lace in which the 'curl' formed a six-pointed star. Seamen and petty officers wore their rank badges on the upper left sleeve, while chief petty officers had three buttons on each cuff and a special cap badge. For arm-of-service distinction, non-executive officers in civil branches wore 'lights' which appeared between the rank distinction lace. Specialists wore distinguishing badges on the collar if chief petty officers, or otherwise on the right arm. COLOUR CHARTS PHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:31:54 GMT 1
République françaiseFrench RepublicARMY France emerged from World War I with considerable military prestige, but the Army and indeed the whole nation were exhausted. After the experiences of World War I, there was considerable weight of opinion and political pressure behind the view that a strategy based upon a solid defensive line accorded best with the demands of modern warfare and the needs of the country. The result was the construction of the fortress complexes of the Maginot Line, which absorbed a great deal of the defence budget. The French military establishment had its critics, and there was a small but vociferous school of thought which condemned the reliance on static fortifications. The French Army, based on conscription, was of variable quality; reserve divisions especially were often considered a liability, and observers, including the British General Brooke, were shaken by their insubordination and slovenly appearance. The French Army was mobilised on September 1, 1939: about 5,000,000 reservists were to be added to the standing army of 900,000 men. The drole de guerre (Phoney War) and bitter winter, however, added to the low morale of the armed forces. On 10 May 1940 the German offensive began by outflanking the Maginot Line in an advance through the Ardennes region, a move totally unexpected by the Allies. Once knocked off balance France never recovered and despite brave and sometimes effective counter-attacks, German tactics, troop training, morale and much military equipment proved decisively superior. After a campaign lasting less than two months France was forced to sue for peace and an armistice was signed on 22 June 1940. Under the terms of the armistice, in the unoccupied zone of France those forces that remained intact were rapidly demobilised except 100,000 men who were to maintain order (l'armee de l'armistice). The French fleet and colonial forces were to remain intact for the time being. Total casualties amounted to 290,000 men killed or wounded and 1,900,000 taken prisoner. A large number of men had succeeded in escaping to the colonies, however, and many had been evacuated to England. There was one redeeming- feature in this massive defeat: the performance of the French forces on the Italian border, where 185,000 men (in three divisions and various garrison forces) under General Olry completely halted the Italian attack of 20-25 June at a cost of 37 killed, 42 wounded and 150 missing. Organisation:In May 1940 the French Army on the north-east front, which stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea, was divided into the 1st and 2nd Army Groups and the 7th Army. These forces comprised: • 63 infantry divisions (of which 30 were regular) ; • 7 motorised infantry divisions; • 3 armoured divisions; • 3 light mechanised divisions; • 5 cavalry divisions; • 13 fortress divisions. The general reserve comprised further 17 infantry, 2 motorised and armoured divisions. The backbone of the French Army was the infantry which, apart from increased firepower, was in organisation and training, very similar to that of World War 1, and still relied on horse transport to a great extent. The basic French infantry division had provided a model for those of many other countries, and consisted of a divisional headquarters, three infantry regiments, two artillery regiments, and a reconnaissance group of four squadrons: headquarters, motorcycle, horse and weapons. The support elements of the division included two companies of engineers, a telegraph and a radio company, two baggage trains (one horsedrawn, one motorised), an artillery park and a medical group. The divisional anti-tank unit comprised a company of twelve 25 mm anti-tank guns and a battery of 47mm guns, and was attached to one of the Infantry Regiments. The full complement of a division was 17,000 men and 500 officers. Each regiment possessed a headquarters company, a weapons company (six 25mm guns, two 81 mm mortars and three gun carriers), a supply company and three infantry battalions making a total of about 3000 men and 80 officers armed with Ruby or Starr 7.65mm pistols and Lebel rifles of various models. The battalion comprised a headquarters section, three rifle companies ( 190 men divided into a headquarters and four rifle sections) and a machine-gun company made up of one gun section (two 25mm guns and two 8I mm mortars) and four machine-gun sections each with four heavy (Hotchkiss M14) machine guns. The smallest unit in the Army was the group of I 1 men equipped with a light (Chatellerault M24/29 machine gun; three groups making a rifle section. Total support weapons of a regiment comprised: • 112 light machine guns; • 48 heavy machine guns; • 9 light mortars; • 8 heavy mortars; • 9 infantry and anti-tank guns. In May 1940 France had over 3000 tanks, and in terms of numbers, quality and firepower they were generally superior to those employed by the Germans. Tactically, however, the French were definitely inferior, and with one or two exceptions the handling of this valuable force was uninspired and wasteful. The basic armoured unit was the tank battalion, comprising a staff, three tank companies and a reserve company (in all, some 45 to 60 tanks). There were 39 tank battalions in 1940 and for tactical purposes they were twinned to form tank battalion groups. At the outbreak of war only five battalions had received the latest tanks (the D-2 and B-1 models) while the rest still retained a variety of modern and semi-obsolete types. In addition to the battalion groups there were also 1 1 independent tank companies. Between January and May 1940 four reserve armoured divisions were formed and placed at the disposal of the General Headquarters. Each division was formed from a demi-brigade (two battalions) of Char B tanks, two battalions of Hotchkiss light tanks, a battalion of motorised rifles, a regiment of tractor-drawn artillery (two groups of 105mm guns), and engineer, aviation and service units. These divisions absorbed a number of the above-mentioned tank battalions and companies. Armoured fighting vehicles were also to be found in the cavalry divisions undergoing mechanisation, in five light cavalry divisions which were also still not completely mechanised, and in the reconnaissance groups. All these formations combined horsed cavalry, motorcycle troops, armoured cars, tanks, and infantry mounted in cross-country vehicles. Finally there were the three light mechanised divisions each of which had two regiments of tanks, a squadron of armoured cars and motorcycles and a regiment of motorised infantry (Dragons portes). However, it should be pointed out that not all of these formations had received all their equipment by May 1940, and many were still being formed. French cavalry, although in the process of motorisation, still represented a large mounted force. Apart from the cavalry in the mechanised brigades and light mechanised divisions, there were also regiments of Cuirassiers, Dragons, Dragons portes, Chasseurs a Cheval and Hussards. In May 1940 the three remaining cavalry divisions were partially motorised and formed into light mechanised divisions and light cavalry divisions. Troops from Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia counted as part of the metropolitan army, and North Africans made a large contribution to the French Army. The 12 North African infantry divisions were each composed of three infantry regiments and one artillery regiment. They included regiments of the French Foreign Legion, zouaves, and Moroccan, Algerian and Tunisian tirailleurs (light infantry). Three Brigades of spahis from Algeria and Morocco fought with distinction before retreating to the unoccupied zone of France. A spahi brigade had a strength of some 80 officers, 2200 other ranks (of whom 930 were French), 2000 horses and 150 motor vehicles. French colonial troops came under the control of a special directorate of the Ministry of War, and were stationed partly in the colonies and partly in France. Their commandant had the status of regional commander and was appointed Senior Commandant of Colonial Troops in France. The designation of formations as `colonial' meant either that it had been raised in France to serve in the colonies, or that it was composed of native troops from the French Empire. In May 1940 there were nine divisions of colonial infantry, while in the 102nd Fortress Division there was a demibrigade each of Indochinese and Malagasy machine gunners helping to man the Maginot Line. In addition a number of metropolitan divisions had been brought up to strength by the addition of nonmetropolitan regiments. Uniforms:Twenty years after its introduction, the old `horizon blue' gave way to khaki when in 1935 this became the standard colour of French Army uniforms. Previously only the colonial and African troops had worn khaki. In the years leading up to World War II, a number of modifications to existing uniforms were made, and completely new items of clothing and equipment were introduced, but these had not reached all troops by the summer of 1940. Officers either continued to wear the old closed tunic, or the new open pattern illustrated by figure 52. In the field, generals wore a plain khaki kepi with metal rank stars on the front. The greatcoat was single-breasted, with five or six buttons in front and low fall collar with pronounced points, and turnback greatcoat was single breasted, with five cuffs. In undress uniforms officers could wear long khaki trousers with brown piping and stripes. The basic field uniform for other ranks is illustrated by figure 51. Other forms of head-dress were the khaki side cap and the khaki beret for fortress troops. One of the main variations on the field uniform was worn by mounted personnel in cavalry, horse artillery and horsedrawn supply trains. They received a single-breasted greatcoat and riding breeches, while their footwear consisted of ankle boots, spurs and leggings. Rifles (chasseurs a pied) and mountain rifles (chasseurs alpins) wore a distinctive dark-blue uniform, although they retained the khaki infantry greatcoat for winter field wear. The head-dress was a dark blue beret. The winter of 1939-40 was particularly severe and the French soldier found his uniform inadequate for the temperature which sometimes reached minus 2o degrees centigrade. Winter clothing had to be improvised by the unit or individual and consisted in the main of additional underwear and pullovers. The most common forms of external winter clothing were sleeveless sheepskin coats and gauntlets, rubber boots, and winter camouflage dress. Members of motorised and armoured formations received the standard uniform but when on duty with their vehicles they wore a special helmet or a black beret, and either the obsolete double-breasted black leather coat or the new single-breasted brown model. Over khaki trousers and puttees they wore khaki drill trousers which fastened around the ankle. In warm weather tank crews usually wore their two-piece working overalls. Motorcycle troops also wore the motorised troops' helmet and a leather coat, or the new 1938 model double-breasted cotton duck jacket, or a waterproof canvas raincoat. The colonial and African troops serving in France during the 1940 campaign wore standard French Army uniform with certain distinctive features; the Foreign Legion, for example, had the right to wear the white kepi (although it was seldom worn in action) while the zouaves tirailleurs and spahis wore chechias or turbans of different colours. In addition, the Foreign Legion and the zouaves wore a blue sash, tirailleurs a red sash, and spahis a white and red burnous. Insignia:Officers' rank was denoted by the insignia on the sleeves of the tunic and greatcoat and on the kepi and forage cap. On the coat and other overgarments rank insignia was shown by a series of stripes on tabs which were affixed to a coat button. Officers of general rank had gold oak leaves embroidered on the kepi while other officers wore gold and silver lace on the kepi to denote rank. The regimental badge or number was shown on the front of the kepi. Insignia for warrant officers and NCOs was worn as chevrons and stripes on the arm. Ranks from corporal upwards were entitled to wear a gold or silver chinstrap on the kepi. The colour of the chevrons and numerals and the colour of the collar patch itself identified the unit of the wearer. Infantry and tank troops, for example, had khaki patches; but while infantry had blue chevrons and red numerals, the tank troops usually had grey chevrons and numerals. Artillery had red collar patches with blue chevrons. AIR FORCEThe French Air Force (Armee de l'Air) was formed as an independent service on 1 April 1933. Head of the service was the Air Minister who was also president of the Supreme Air Council which dealt with organisation, co-operation with land and sea forces, supply, training, tactics and equipment. The 'air defence of France and her overseas Empire was the responsibility of five Air Regions (Dijon, Paris, Tours, Aix-en-Provence and North Africa) each of which was sub-divided into two Air Districts. The largest flying formations were the air divisions and independent brigades. An air division had two or three brigades each with two or three squadrons. Frontline strength on the eve of World War II was 1200 fighters, 1300 bombers and 800 reconnaissance aircraft, and in August 1939 there were 110,000 personnel of all ranks, a figure which had risen to 150,000 by March 1940. The Air Force had suffered considerable neglect between the wars, and its performance in 1940 with machines which were in general much inferior to those of the enemy, was not impressive. Indeed, according to French sources, only 420 modern fighters and 31 heavy bombers were serviceable when the Germans struck in May. Anti-aircraft artillery, except that forming part of the field army, came under the commander of anti-aircraft artillery in the Air Ministry. On mobilisation a reorganisation took place which divided the anti-aircraft defence of France into the interior and coastal regions. The latter came under the control of the Naval Minister, while the former was organised into five battalions each with three batteries of 75mm guns and a sixth battalion equipped with searchlights. In wartime anti-aircraft artillery also assumed responsibility for barrage balloons. Uniforms:In July 1934 the Air Force adopted a dark `Louise-blue' uniform whose origin was to be found in the dark blue uniform worn by the army engineers who had pioneered military aviation before World War I. The service dress for officers and regular NCOs is illustrated by figure 55.A double-breasted greatcoat with two rows of three gilt metal buttons was often worn over this. Other ranks had a dark steel-grey blouse with a round fall collar which was worn closed but left exposed a blue shirt and black tie. It was worn with matching long trousers and a 'horizon-blue' greatcoat. This obsolete infantry greatcoat began to be replaced in 1937 by the cavalry pattern coat but in 'Louise blue'. Head-dress consisted of a peaked cap with white cover for summer wear, a black beret for everyday and working wear, and the two patterns of French Army steel helmet (the Adrian model of the infantry and the version worn by motorised troops). The standard canvas flying suit is illustrated in figure 54, but many pilots of single-seater aircraft wore a doublebreasted leather jacket. Insignia:Rank was indicated bv the embroidery or rank distinction lace on the peaked cap and on the cuffs of officers and warrant officers. On the working cap the rank distinction lace was restricted to an oval patch on the front of the cap, rather than around the circumference of the cap band. Other ranks also wore their rank badges on their headdress and cuffs. On flying clothing and working dress, rank distinction lace was worn on a cloth patch which was buttoned to the front of the garment. For arm-of-service distinction, certain branches and sometimes units themselves were identified by an emblem or number which was incorporated in the winged badge which was worn on the front of the peaked cap and on the right breast. Other ranks wore their branch colour in the form of chevrons on the collar patches, while the formation number or emblem was embroidered in orange for other ranks or gold for NCOs. Pilots of aircraft and balloons and cadet pilots, mechanics and observers wore a distinctive circular white metal badge on the right breast pocket. NAVY The Ministry of National Defence coordinated the activities of the three ministries representing the armed forces. The most important office of the Ministry of Marine was the Chief of the Admiralty, Vice-Admiral F. X. Darlan. He controlled all operations at sea and was also responsible for coastal defence. His immediate subordinates were the squadron and base commanders. In January 1937 France began a programme of modernisation and expansion' which elevated the French Fleet to fourth largest in the world, although it was considerably smaller than that of her ally, Great Britain. On August 23, 1939 Navy reservists were called up, anti-aircraft defences manned, and liaison officers were exchanged with the Royal Navy. By September 1, 1939 the strength of the French Navy was 1 60,00o personnel of all ranks. The deployment of the French Navy on the outbreak of war was as follows: Indo-China: • 2 cruisers, • 5 destroyers, • 2 submarines, • and a number of sloops and river gunboats; Casablanca: • 2 destroyers and 4 submarines to cover the routes between France, Dakar and the West Indies; Channel: • 7 destroyers, plus the equivalent of an Army division for coastal defence; Bay of Biscay: • 3 destroyers; Mediterranean: • In agreement with the British Admiralty the strongest concentration of French vessels was in the Mediterranean where the powerful Italian fleet posed a threat to the vitally important sea routes from France to North Africa and the British routes via the Suez Canal to Gibraltar. The Mediterranean Squadron was commanded by Vice-Admiral R. E. Godfroy and was based at Toulon and Mers-elKebir. It comprised 3 battleships, 1 seaplane carrier, 10 cruisers, 48 destroyers and 53 submarines. The submarine strength reflected France's emphasis on underwater warfare both for fleet work and for the destruction of commercial vessels. The giant Surcouf was actually officially designated a 'corsair' submarine; Atlantic: • Established at Brest was an independent Force de Raid under ViceAdmiral M. B. Gensoul. It was to operate against German surface warships which might try and break out into the Atlantic and was composed of z battlecruisers, 1 aircraft carrier, 3 cruisers and 10 destroyers. By concentrating their most modern warships - specially designed to counter the latest enemy vessels - the French Navy had produced the first task force of World War II. The early war strength of the Fleet Air Arm Aeronavale was four squadrons of dive-bombers, two of seaplanes and one of flying boats. They were all intended to be shipborne, although the employment of the two rather slow carriers on ferrying duties meant that the aircraft had to be shore-based, apart from those planes mounted on capital ship and cruiser catapults. In 1939, naval aircraft strength was 350 planes. The Battle of France was fought and lost on land, but the French Navy proved itself a brave and capable force during the combined operations in Norway and during the evacuation of Allied forces from France. As the German Army approached the Channel coast French ships were ordered to leave the Channel and Biscay ports. Some set sail for England, while the majority headed for the Mediterranean ports of Oran and Mers-el-Kebir, others to Alexandria and some to Dakar in French West Africa. According to the terms of the Armistice of 22 June, the new (Vichy) French government could retain its warships (which had not been defeated at sea), provided they placed themselves under German or Italian control. This meant in harbours within the Axis sphere of influence rather than under Axis control. Accordingly some 70 to 8o seagoing capital ships, cruisers, destroyers and submarines were berthed at Toulon under Admiral Jean de Laborde (Commander-in-Chief of the French Navy). Most of these ships were scuttled on 27 November 1942. Meanwhile, following the Armistice, there were two French battleships, ten destroyers, 12 sloops, seven submarines and a number of smaller vessels sheltering in Plymouth, Falmouth, Portsmouth and Sheerness. At dawn on July 3, 1940 in Operation 'Catapult', British boarding parties wearing carpet slippers stole on board the French ships in British ports and disarmed the surprised French crews, but not without bloodshed. On July 3 the French Fleet lying in Mers-el-Kebir received the British ultimatum to place itself at the disposal of the British and continue the war against Germany and Italy, agree to be disarmed under British supervision, sink itself, or be sunk. Bad communications with the newly-established Petain government and the unyielding atmosphere of the negotiations led to the understandable French rejection of British demands. At 5:54 pm the British Fleet opened fire and in sixteen minutes three French capital ships had been disabled while one capital ship and a number of smaller vessels managed to slip away to Toulon. In this and a subsequent attack the French lost 1297 killed and 351 wounded. At Alexandria, the French agreed to disarm their ships and no lives were lost. It is now clear that the French had no intention of letting their Fleet fall into German hands, and all British policy succeeded in doing was antagonising the bulk of the French Navy, which resulted in the refusal of most of the French sailors in England to join the FNFL (Free French Naval Forces), and the strengthening of the Vichy French resolve to resist the anti-German Free French landings in Dakar two months later. Ironically the Vichy government continued to pay allowances to the relatives of men serving with the FNFL. Uniforms:The French Navy uniform of World War II was the result of regulations issued in 1922 (for petty officers) and 1931 (for officers) although the traditional 'square-rig' for ratings originated in 1858. Service dress for officers is illustrated by figure 58. The greatcoat was doublebreasted with two rows of five buttons in front. There was also a double-breasted raincoat which was worn without insignia. Officers could wear the blue reefer jacket with cap with white cover, white trousers and white canvas shoes, or they could wear the special white summer jacket. There was also a khaki drill uniform for wear on duty in hot climates. Warrant officers (officiers mariniers) and petty officers wore officers' uniform as a full-dress or for walking-out, but on board they usually wore a blue linen working jacket. Ratings wore the uniform illustrated by figure 57, over which they could wear the double-breasted pea-coat in cold weather. Working dress was either blue or undyed denim, and for summer and wear in hot climates there was both a white version of the 'square-rig', or a special white uniform with shorts and sun helmet. There was no special corps of marines, and so sailors serving on land or in disembarkation companies were issued with the Army-pattern steel helmet and navy-blue greatcoat, infantry equipment, and canvas leggings. Insignia: Officers, warrant officers, petty officers and all other ranks entitled to officers' uniform wore their badges of rank on the peaked cap, shoulder straps and cuffs. Ratings wore their badges of rank on the cuffs of the jumper, pea-coat and greatcoat. Arm-of-service colours appeared on the cuffs and as `lights' between the rank distinction lace on the cuffs and shoulder straps. Specialist badges were nearly always worn on the upper left sleeve, and on the pea-coat and greatcoat collar. COLOUR CHARTS PHOTOGRAPHSARMED FORCES IN EXILE, FRANCE 1939-40POLISH ARMY Many Polish soldiers, singly or in small groups, had evaded capture or escaped internment after the defeat in 1939, and made their way to France through the Baltic countries in the north, and through Hungary, Romania, Yugoslavia and Italy in the south. The formation of a Polish Army in France had begun in November, 1939, and a large camp was set aside for the Poles in Coetquidan in Brittany. Polish volunteers arrived in a steady stream until they filled camps in no less than three French departements. Gradually an army began to take shape. It was to comprise a headquarters, training establishments, two infantry divisions with a further two in the process of formation, an independent Highland Brigade, and an armoured cavalry brigade: a total strength of some 72,00o men. When the German invasion took place, the Polish Army was only half ready. The 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions were called upon to provide 12 anti-tank companies to reinforce French divisions, while the 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade, after only a few days in which to get used to its new equipment was split into two, and a combat group was sent straight into action. The Independent Highland Brigade which had been modelled on the French chasseurs alpins - although few of its men knew much about mountains - was shipped off to Norway. In France the 1st Grenadier and 2nd Rifle Divisions sustained heavy casualties before being driven across the border into Switzerland and internment. From a total of 83,000 men serving in the Polish Forces abroad on 15 June 1940, 24,000 were evacuated to England where they joined 3700 Poles already serving with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force, 5000 were in the Middle East, and 50,000 were casualties, prisoners of war, or internees. Organisation: The 1st Grenadier Division and the 2nd Rifle Division had three infantry regiments each, a regiment of field and a regiment of medium artillery, an engineer battalion, pioneer company, reconnaissance unit, signals battalion, radio telegraph company, divisional anti-tank company, two transport companies, a platoon of military police and various services: a total of 16,000 men in each division. The 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions had only two infantry regiments, although it was planned to add a third at some later date. The Independent Highland Brigade consisted of two demi-brigades of two battalions each with three rifle and one support company armed with rifles and pistols, supported by fifteen 60mm and fifteen 8 1 mm mortars and 25 anti-tank guns. Its strength was 182 officers, 45 officer cadets (aspirants), 742 NCOs and 3809 other ranks. The 10th Armoured Brigade had been formed from troops of the former Polish Armoured Brigade which, following the Polish defeat, had been interned in Hungary. The men had then filtered through to France in small groups. By June 1940 its strength was 3323 all ranks. It was organised as a tank regiment of two battalions with a total of go R-35 tanks, a motorised cavalry regiment of two battalions, an artillery battery of two troops of 105mm guns, and an anti-tank gun troop with 25mm guns, a signals squadron, engineer company and services. In addition there was a detached `Combat Group' which consisted of 102 officers and 1607 other ranks. Uniforms: Polish troops in France at first received obsolete French 'horizonblue' uniforms left over from World War I, but these were gradually replaced by the standard khaki pattern. Those officers who still possessed pre-1939 Polish uniforms tended to wear them off duty. The standard uniform for officers was a side cap, an open single-breasted khaki tunic with khaki shirt and tie, and matching breeches with either brown lace-up boots or high black boots. Equipment was in brown leather, as for French officers. Other ranks also received a standard khaki field uniform and the Highland Brigade which was sent to Norway was issued with additional mountain troop clothing and equipment. Other forms of head-dress for other ranks were a khaki beret for mountain troops, black beret for armoured troops and the two patterns of the French steel helmet on the front of which were painted the Polish eagle in white. Insignia:Rank badges appeared on the side cap and beret and on the shoulder straps for all ranks. Cloth collar patches in arm-of-service or regimental colours appear to have been rarely worn by anybody other than commissioned officers. POLISH AIR FORCE The crews of the 84 Polish aircraft which had been evacuated to Romania in October 1939 were interned, but one by one they managed to reach France, where, by April 1940, 8678 Polish airmen assembled. This number represented almost the complete trained flying and ground personnel of the pre-war Polish Air Force. Despite shortages of equipment and machines and poor morale it was decided to form one fighter group and one bomber group. On q. January 1940 the Franco-Polish Air Agreement was concluded: this recommended the formation of two fighter groups, a reconnaissance group and a personnel pool. On 22 February 1940 General Sikorski, Commander-in-Chief of Polish Forces, detached the Air Force from Army control and made it an independent branch of the armed forces. When the Germans invaded France in May 1940 only the Polish fighter groups had become operational, while the other formations were being equipped and undergoing training. On 19 June General Sikorski appealed to his Polish troops to make their way to England where Polish forces would again be re-formed. Some pilots flew their aircraft to England, while others escaped by ship. By July 1940 some 550 Polish airmen had reached England. During the fighting in France Polish airmen claimed 56 enemy aircraft destroyed for the loss of 1 1 pilots and 40 aircraft. Uniforms:Polish Air Force personnel were (after a delay) equipped with the 'Louise-blue' uniform of the French Air Force. On their head-dress (peaked cap or beret) they wore the Polish eagle and their badges of rank. Polish qualification, school, establishment and regimental badges were worn on the French uniform, and rank badges were attached to the shoulder straps. CZECHOSLOVAK ARMY Before 1938, the 1,500,000 strong Czech Army was one of the largest in Europe. After the Munich Agreement, Czech soldiers began to leave their homeland, and the first Czech units abroad were formed in Poland. The nucleus of a Czech Army was constituted from about 1000 soldiers and 150 airmen, but it was not long before Poland herself was crushed, and the Czechs were forced to leave Poland; some travelling to the Soviet Union, some to the Middle East and some to France. At first, the French had insisted that all Czechs serve in the French Foreign Legion, but after France's own entry into the war an agreement was negotiated by the Czech National Committee in Paris to cancel the Foreign Legion obligation. At the Foreign Legion base at Agde in southern France, the Czechs were formed into the 1 Czech Division, made up of the 1 and 2nd Infantry Regiments. The organisation, equipment and armaments were French, although many of the weapons were leftovers from World War I. During the Battle of France the 1st Regiment (at Coulommiers) and the 2nd (on the Marne) tried to halt the 16th Panzer Division, but had their flanks turned and had to fight a rearguard action back across France: they were eventually re-grouped at Narbonne before being evacuated from Selte. Uniforms and insignia: The Czech soldiers serving in Czech units with the French Army wore French Army uniform with Czech badges of rank on the shoulder straps. Graduates of the Officers' Academy wore their graduation badge on the right breast pocket. CZECHOSLOVAK AIR FORCE A number of Czech airmen made their way to France, but it was not until France declared war on Germany that it was agreed that the Czechs should serve in the French Air Force. They were distributed between 15 squadrons of fighter and bomber aircraft. On June 1, 1940 a treaty was signed establishing Czech Air Force units to operate in conjunction with the Czech Army in France, and two Czech squadrons began formation. After the fall of France, the airmen were evacuated to Britain. Uniforms and insignia:The Czech airmen with the French Air Force wore the French 'Louise-blue' uniform with a Czech cap badge, rank insignia on the shoulder straps and various flying badges of the former Czech Air Force on the left or right breast pocket.
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:35:34 GMT 1
Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (CCCP)Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik (SSSR)Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)ARMYDuring 1939-40 the Soviet armed forces were undergoing a period of transition. New weapons and tactical ideas were being developed, but misguided and often stultifying central control meant that there was little sense of initiative or responsibility, and important advances in any sphere were often left in isolation. The excellent progress made in tank construction, for instance, was counterbalanced by the absence of an effective radio-communication system, without which tanks were severely restricted. The baleful influence of Stalin over the Soviet armed forces during the 1930s culminated in the purges of 1938 which decimated the officer corps. Almost inevitably, the most able and outspoken officers were destroyed by the purges and this was a significant factor in the poor performance of the Red Army in the Winter War against Finland in 1939. It has been estimated that Soviet casualties were about 200,000 men during this short campaign. At the time little or nothing was known in the West about the Red Army of Workers and Peasants. Some twenty years of isolation had veiled much of what went on in the Soviet Union. Organisation:Overall control of the Red Army was exercised by the People's Commissariat for Defence and the Commander-in-Chief, First Marshal of the Soviet Union K. E. Voroshilov. Decisions were reached in consultation with the Council for Work and Defence, and the eighty-member War Council. Directly subordinate to Voroshilov's Commissariat was the General Staff which was divided into seven departments: operations, organisation, railways, intelligence, mobilisation, anti-aircraft defence and topography. Four deputies were responsible for armaments, land, air and sea forces. The Army was essentially a standing army which was run by a professional cadre, but it relied on conscription for the mass of its personnel. Men were liable for military service for a period of 22 years from the age of 20 to 41. A conscript served three to four years, depending on his arm of service, in the active or cadre troops, after which he entered the active reserve. From the age of 27 to 35 he was part of the 1st Reserve, and from 35 to 41 part of the 2nd Reserve. The peacetime strength of the army was estimated at 1,800,000 men, while mobilised strength could be as high as 1 1,000,000 The Soviet Union was divided into 13 military districts and 2 military commissariats. Each had under its command separate heavy artillery, motorised mechanical corps, aviation, engineer and technical troops as well as all the Field Army units and installations under its jurisdiction. The Field Army consisted of: • 35 rifle (infantry) corps (about 100 rifle divisions including 23 Territorial divisions) ; • 7 cavalry corps (32 cavalry divisions) ; • 12 independent cavalry divisions; • 5 tank corps 10 tank brigades) ; • 1 motorised rifle brigade. A rifle corps comprised three to four rifle divisions, a regiment of corps artillery, pioneer, bridging and signals battalions and a squadron of aircraft. The Soviet rifle division of 1939 had an establishment strength of nearly 1 9,000 men and was in theory well equipped with supporting arms. As can be seen in the diagram, the Soviet division was a 'combined arms' force capable of undertaking most tasks at divisional level. In practice, however, a chronic shortage of trained manpower prevented the technical and mechanical elements working effectively with the result that the division was little more than a formation of riflemen with artillery support. The division was, in theory at least, lavishly supplied with artillery, with 12 x 152 mm and 28 x 122 mm howitzers, 42 x 76mm and 54 x 45mm guns, and over 100 mortars of various calibres ranging from 50 to 120mm A novel feature was the inclusion of a battalion of T-26 light tanks and armoured cars but they proved ineffective during the fighting in Finland and were withdrawn. A rifle regiment had a strength of about 2900 officers and men, armed with 7.62mm Moisin-Nagant rifles and M 1933 Tokarev pistols. Support weapons were: • 81 light machine guns (7.62 mm Degtyarev); • 58 heavy machine guns (7.62 mm Maxim) ; • 6 infantry guns; 6 anti-tank guns. Great importance was attached to artillery and the Red Army experimented with large groups capable of delivering massive barrages on given targets, a method which was to be fully exploited during the later stages of World War II. Artillery was organised in 140 light artillery regiments each with a regimental staff, staff battery, anti-aircraft battery and three to four battalions each with three to four batteries of three or four guns each. There were 35 heavy corps artillery regiments with tractor-drawn 1 5o mm guns and howitzers, and 20 artillery regiments held in reserve for use by the Supreme Commander. Antiaircraft artillery battalions were also motorised and equipped with guns ranging from 40 mm Vickers M18s to the 105 mm Leningrad M 1934. During the inter-war years Soviet industry began to deliver increasing numbers of armoured fighting vehicles which the Red Army, partly under British influence, had decided to concentrate into large independent armoured formations. These tank formations (which became an independent arm of the Red Army) were based around either the mechanised brigade (three battalions of 32 T-28 tanks, a battalion of reconnaissance BT-7 and BT-8 tanks, and a motorised machinegun battalion) or the tank brigade (four battalions of T-28 tanks). This was in addition to the battalion of T-26 tanks which formed part of some infantry divisions, the BT-7 tanks which were issued to mechanised units in cavalry formations, and the T-35 tanks which made up the strength of the heavy tank brigades held as Army reserve troops. But experience during the Spanish Civil War and the disastrous showing of armoured formations in unsuitable and sub-zero conditions in Finland led to the abandonment of this progressive development in favour of the French practice of splitting-up tanks amongst the infantry as mobile gun platforms. Another new concept developed by Soviet military planners was the use of troops and equipment transported by air and dropped by parachute. During large scale manoeuvres in the Kiev military district in 1935-36 a complete rifle division with all its supporting arms was dropped by parachute. Even light tanks, slung underneath heavy bombers, were dropped from tree-top level without parachutes. But this was merely an exercise, and in the politically unstable days of the late 1930s the techniques of airborne warfare were not developed further by the Red Army. Although the Germans were impressed few others seem to have seen the significance of this novel form of warfare. The Soviet Union placed great reliance on cavalry because of vast distances, poor road and rail communications and the inability of Soviet industry to provide vehicles for all of such a huge army. In 1937-38 for example, large-scale cavalry formations, able to operate as independent forces, had been created as a 'strategic cavalry'. A cavalry corps consisted of a corps staff, three cavalry divisions, and corps troops. The cavalry division comprised: • Divisional staff; • 2 brigades (each of 2 regiments) ; • 2 motorised rifle battalions; • 1 horse artillery regiment; • 1 armoured car (or tank) battalion; pioneer and signals squadron; • supply unit. The cavalry regiment comprised: • regimental staff; • 5 squadrons of sabres; • 1 machine gun squadron (mounted in carts) ; • 1 artillery battery (76mm guns); • pioneers, signals and chemical troops; • baggage train. Uniforms:The Soviet Union maintained the largest Army in Europe, and in order to keep it supplied with uniforms and personal equipment, Soviet industry could only produce tried and tested designs. Many of the basic patterns of clothing had been designed at the beginning of the century at the time of the Russo Japanese War, and had proved themselves during World War I. Westerners often describe Russian iniform as cheap and shabby, and refer to a lack of standardisation. In fact, the traditional Russian uniform had a certain rugged smartness when well worn, and since everything was manufactured in state factories the degree of standardisation achieved was never equalled in any other Army. The basic uniform consisted of a flat 'Japanese-style' peaked cap, a khaki shirt in traditional cut but with standard and fall collar, which was worn outside the trousers. Breeches were either of a matching colour or dark blue. High boots were increasingly replaced by ankle boots (often of American manufacture) and puttees. This basic uniform was worn throughout the year, but in winter all ranks wore a long grey greatcoat (shinel) and grey cloth pointed helmet (shlem). In addition to the basic items described above officers had a superior quality shirt, with piping, which was made of cotton for summer and wool for winter wear. The greatcoat was made of good quality cloth with piping and brass buttons. At the end Of 1935 officers had received a new single-breasted tunic which could be worn with either breeches and boots or long trousers and shoes. In the 1930s the armoured troops became one of the most prestigious arms of the Red Army, and this status was reflected in a new steel-grey uniform which was introduced in 1935 as an undress and full-dress uniform. In the field officers wore the standard Army uniform or the special protective clothing issued to crews of armoured vehicles. This clothing consisted of a leather helmet fitted with padded ribs, a one-piece black overall and leather driving gauntlets. Soviet insignia is examined in the section on the Eastern Front. AIR FORCE Throughout the 1920's and 1930's the Soviet Government made enormous efforts to build up a large modern air force, but the difficulties in finding suitable designs and the machines and materials to mass produce aircraft were enormous. To overcome the lack of pilots and mechanics the government poured money into the voluntary organisation Osoaaiakhim (Society for the Support of Defence, Aviation and Chemical Defence). Soon after its formation in 1927 it had a membership of three million which had grown to 13 million by 1936. Aero clubs were set up to provide pilots, mechanics and parachutists, and until 1940 all Red Air Force volunteers came from this source. Shortages of instructors, training aids and aircraft meant that the standard attained was very low, however, and it was finally decided to select Air Force recruits from the annual military draft. Between 1935 and 1937, 3576 aircraft, including a large proportion of four engined bombers, were produced, but as the numbers increased so effectiveness decreased because the technical standard of the aircraft industry was falling behind developments in more advanced industrial nations. The Red Air Force had its first practical experience in the Spanish Civil War and this resulted in certain organisational and operational changes, but it was the traumatic experience of the Winter War against Finland (in which some 1000 Soviet aircraft were lost) that really showed up the alarming shortcomings in training, tactics and equipment. Red Air Force commanders were not ignorant of these defects but the purges of 19371938 which removed many senior commanders, meant that the remedies uundertaken were not necessarily the most effective. Organisation:The Soviet government not only had to overcome technical and manpower problems in the construction of an air force, it also encountered difficulties in its organisation. Soviet military doctrine considered air power as an adjunct to land warfare and so the Air Force continued to be part of the Army. But by 1937 the Air Force had grown in size and importance to such an extent that it was decided that an Air Force representative should be admitted to the State Commissariat for Defence. The Air Force of the Red Army (VVS-RKKA) was, however, divided into two basic components. The first was the Air Force of the Red Army which consisted of fighter and ground attack regiments under the direct control of a Military District (later Front). The second component was the Long-Range Bomber Force which was at the disposal of the State Commissariat of Defence for tactical deployment on any front when necessary. In April 1939 a thorough re-organisation within the Air Force took place. The largest formation was now the air division, which comprised between four and six air regiments (formerly brigades). Each regiment consisted of about 60 aircraft with additional reserve planes (usually about 40 aircraft). There were three types of Air Regiment: • bomber regiments with four squadrons of 12 aircraft each; • fighter regiments with four squadrons of 15 aircraft each; • ground attack regiments with four squadrons of 15 aircraft each. The squadron was divided into wings (Zven 'ya) of three aircraft. The Air Force attached to a Military District or Front included a number of fighter and bomber regiments, while mixed regiments with both bomber and fighter components were attached to army corps, which also retained their own reconnaissance squadrons. Uniforms:As members of the Red Army, Air Force personnel wore Army uniforms. Following the French custom, however, a dark blue uniform was introduced in 1935 for wear as a dress and undress uniform. Items of the blue uniform continued to be worn with khaki clothing during the war, because of the shortage of uniforms in the war time Soviet Union. The basic pre-war flight clothing for fighter pilots was a fur-lined leather flying helmet and double-breasted brown leather coat. In warm weather pilots of enclosed aircraft wore their service uniforms. Bomber crews wore either an unlined one-piece black overall or a fur-lined one-piece flying suit, with soft fur-lined flying boots which could cover the thighs, but were often worn with the tops folded down to give the appearance of fur leggings (as in figure 32). NAVY As a land power the Soviet Union did not look upon the Red Navy's role as a strategic one. Its main tasks, therefore, were the patrolling of territorial waters, the protection of shore installations, the support of land forces, and the provision of vessels and personnel for amphibious operations. Organisation:The head of the Red Navy, the Chief of Naval Forces, was directly subordinate to the People's Commissar for Defence, and acted as the latter's deputy and adviser on all naval matters. The Navy was divided into the Fleet, including the Underwater (submarine) Fleet, the Naval Air Force, and Coastal Defence. Conscripts in the Navy usually served for five years in one of the four fleets (Baltic, Northern, Black Sea and Pacific), or in one of the flotillas which operated in the seas and lakes of the Soviet Union. The Red Navy did not have a special force of marines, but used its ratings who had all undergone basic infantry training in the fleet depots for combined operations when necessary. The strength of the whole Soviet Navy in 1939 was estimated at 40,000 men of whom 22,000 were serving at sea. The fleet involved in the war against Finland was the Baltic Fleet. At the beginning of the war the fleet was operationally subordinated to the Leningrad Military District, and comprised the following: • 2 battleships; • 2 cruisers; • 21 destroyers and torpedo boats; • 52 submarines; • 41 motor torpedo boats; • 13 minelayers, minesweepers and auxiliaries; • 2 escort and patrol boats. Added to this were the small craft of the Lake Ladoga Flotilla. The extreme winter weather restricted naval operations and activities were limited to providing artillery support for land operations, and providing personnel for landing operations in the Gulf of Finland and on the Karelian Isthmus. Uniforms:Uniform in the 'Muscovy Fleet', as the Red Navy was sometimes called, followed the standard international naval pattern, but incorporated two unusual features: it was the only navy in which the sailor's traditional square rig was worn with the petty officer's peaked cap, and in which the sailor's uniform combined both the colours blue and black. The officers' black uniform consisted of peaked cap, reefer jacket with white shirt and black tie, black trousers and black leather shoes. The black greatcoat was double-breasted with two rows of six gilt metal buttons. Ratings wore a dark blue jumper (flanelevka) and black bell-bottom trousers. The cap had a long ribbon or 'tally' on which appeared the name of the ship in gilt cyrillic letters. Warrant officers (mishman from the English midshipman) and chief petty officers wore the officer's uniform with a special cap badge, while petty officers with more than five years' service wore the peaked cap with sailor's uniform. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:37:16 GMT 1
Suomen tasavaltaRepubliken FinlandRepublic of FinlandARMYDuring the autumn of 1939, fearful of the eastward expansion of Nazi Germany, the Soviet government made overtures to Finland for an exchange of territory which would push back the border in the Karelian Isthmus (to make Leningrad more secure) and demanded a long-term lease on the Baltic port of Hanko. The Finns refused, and on November 30, 1939 the Red Army crossed the Finnish border. The Finnish army was one of the smallest in Europe and the Red Army expected little opposition. But the Soviet invasion found the Finns well prepared; and they turned to their advantage the sub-zero temperatures and deep snow which in any case favoured a defensive. The main Finnish defence, the Mannerheim Line, held until February 12 1940, although once it was breached there was no alternative but to sue for peace. For an army which never exceeded 200,000 men, Finnish losses were very high: 25,000 killed and 45,000 wounded. There was talk of Allied intervention since the Soviet Union had signed a non-aggrression pact with Hitler's Germany, but the only country to make a sizeable contribution was Sweden which provided weapons, a squadron of aircraft and two battalions of infantry. Volunteers from a number of countries including Norway, Italy, Britain and the United States of America were formed into a volunteer battalion, but it was not ready in time to take part in the fighting. Organisation:Although capable of forming 12 divisions, Finland only had nine at the outbreak of war, and these were sadly lacking in motor transport, communications equipment, anti-tank guns, and automatic weapons. The armed forces were maintained by a small regular cadre which relied on an annual intake of conscripts to complete its numbers. In peacetime, conscripts served for one or one-and-a-half years depending on the arm of service. On completion of conscription the Finnish soldier passed into the reserve in which he remained until the age of 60, when he joined the ranks of the militia. The country was divided into nine Military Districts, each of which was expected to field a division as well as to provide depots, installations, and facilities to enable the Army to mobilise rapidly. The organisation of a division consisted of a divisional staff, three infantry regiments, an artillery regiment and companies ofsignals and pioneers. the artillery regiment comprised 36 guns of various calibres, all of them pre-1918 models and many unsuitable for modern warfare. Although a number of 120mm mortars had been ordered, none had been delivered by the outbreak of war and so the division had only eighteen 81mm mortars, clearly insufficient when compared to the hundred or so mortars of a Soviet division. The supply of automatic weapons was rather better, there being 250 Suomi sub-machine guns and 116 machine guns per division. At full strength a division had 14,200 men. In addition to the nine divisions of infantry there was an independent cavalry brigade which was made up of a staff, two cavalry regiments, a rifle battalion (mounted on bicycles) and a horse artillery battery. There was little reserve artillery and the whole field Army possessed only 100 Bofors 37mm anti-tank guns and no anti-airaft guns at all. The Army had had only minimal experience of tank warfare; but the densely wooded terrain of southern Finland reduced the role of the tank to that of infantry support. Some 30 Vickers light tanks had been supplied but they played only a minor part in this infantry war. There were few medical supplies and communication was at best rudimentary: there was no wireless system and the Army had to rely on field telephones and when that failed a system of runners. This deficiency was particularly serious given the great distances that had to be covered by the beleaguered Finnish Army and, in addition, effective artillery support for the infantry was impossible without radio. Despite these problems the Finnish Army had two great advantages: firstly, a thorough knowledge of the land in winter weather conditions; and secondly, vastly superior human material which expressed a fierce determination to resist the foreign aggressor. These two qualities came together in the crack battalions of ski troops, men experienced in cross-countryskiing and able to cover long distances silently and more quickly than troops equipped with any other form of transport. In particular, the Sissi-Foukkeet (guerrilla ski troops) operated behind enemy lines, and proved a considerable thorn in the side of the Red Army. Uniforms:The Finnish Army uniform which was worn throughout World War II was introduced in 1936, and was basically the same for all ranks. Head-dress consisted of a peaked field cap, although senior officers still continued to wear the old stiff cap with embroidered peak. The tunic was single-breasted with stand-and-fall collar, matching shoulder straps, and six buttons in front. The pleated breast patch pockets had a flap and button, while the side pockets had a flap only. All ranks wore matching breeches and high black leather boots. To operate in the severe winter, troops received sheepskin caps and coats, white snow camouflage clothing and various types of special footwear which included felt boots. During the Winter War the Finns made use of clothing and equipement captured from the Red Army, but the importation of military equipment from all over the world meant that the Finnish Army suffered from a lack of standardisation which was only partially remedied by the Germans in 1940-41. INSIGNIA Rank was indicated on the tunic collar patches, and by the rank distinction lace on the greatcoat cuffs. On the raincoat and other types of winter and protective clothing, rank distinction lace appeared on a patch which was buttoned onto the cuffs. Other ranks wore chevrons on the shoulder straps. The principal methods of indicating arm of service were the colour of the collar patches and the yellow metal badges which were worn on the shoulder straps. In the Imperial Russian tradition (Finland had been part of the Russian Empire until 1917) most formations, units, staffs and establishments had a distinctive metal badge which was worn on the left breast pocket. AIR FORCEThe Finnish Air Force was not an independant arm but formed part of the Army under its own commander. The Air Force was based on the British model with many instructors and some aircraft being supplied by Great Britain. At the beginning of the war, however, the Air Force was much below establishment and had practically no reserve. The front-line strength was 200 aircraft, but only 108 were operational. Personnel consisted of some 2500 men. The Air Force was organised as follows: • 1st Flying Regiment (ground support, dive bombing and reconnaissance) : ___- 4 squadrons each with 3 flights of 4 aircraft (a total of 48 aircraft) ; • 2nd Flying Regiment (fighter defence) : ___- 2 squadrons each with 3 flights (a total of 46 aircraft) ; • 3rd Flying Regiment (bombing and long range reconnaissance) : ___- 2 squadrons each with 3 flights (a total of 16 aircraft). In addition, 2 squadrons for naval reconnaissance, the Air Combat School, and 3 Operational Training Regiments functioned as independent units. Despite its inherent weaknesses, the Finnish Air Force fought hard and inflicted heavy losses on the Red Air Force, claiming 208 victories. Its own losses were 62 combat aircraft and 72 men. Uniforms:A branch of the Army, the Finnish Air Force did not originally have a special uniform. Eventually a dark blue service dress was introduced for officers, but during the war the most common uniform was that worn by the Army, although items of the blue and grey uniform were sometimes worn together. Flying clothing consisted of a one-piece unlined overall and leather flying helmet and gloves. Crews of open aircraft and bombers were equipped with fur lined flying suits and boots, and with fur mittens. Insignia:Army badges of rank were worn on Army uniforms and a special pattern of gold lace stripes was worn on the lower sleeves of the blue (Air Force) uniform. The Air Force arm-of-service colour was blue and this appeared on the collar patches of Army uniforms. The Air Force emblem was the winged propeller which was worn on the shoulder straps. Qualified pilots wore a white metal badge on the left breast pocket. NAVY The President of Finland was Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, while one of his deputies was chief of the Navy. Under him was the chief of the Coastal Defence Fleet, who, in time of war, came under the operational command of the Army. The strength of the Navy in 1939 consisted of 396 officers and 3613 other ranks. The greatest problem faced by the Finnish Navy was the shortage of ice-free ports. Apart from three ports on the Murmansk coast, in winter all other ports were seldom ice-free and often completely frozen. To carry out its principal task of coastal defence, the Finnish Navy had at its disposal 3 gunboats, 30 minelayers and minesweepers, and a number of motor launches and auxiliaries. There were also seven motor torpedo boats of British and Italian design, and five modern submarines. The largest units of the fleet were two heavily armed and armoured coastal defence ships each with a crew of 300 men. The Lake Ladoga Flotilla comprised 20 vessels of various types, but most of these were scuttled or handed over to the Soviet Union in 1940 The Naval Air Force comprised four squadrons including one torpedo bomber squadron. Severe winter conditions hampered naval activity during the Winter War, although some Finnish submarines operated in the approaches to the Gulf of Bothnia. Coastal batteries (there were two regiments of coastal artillery) did, however, play a significant role in the defence of Finnish territory. Uniforms:The Finnish Navy uniforn was very similar to that of the British Navy. Officers and chief petty officers wore a peaked cap, reefer jacket with white. shirt and black tie, long trousers and black shoes. The greatcoat was double-breasted with two rows of six buttons. Petty officers and ratings wore a square rig and a blue cap with long tally on which appeared the name of the vessel or installation in gold lettering, a jumper with blue denim collar, bell-bottomed trousers and black shoes. In cold weather sailors wore a double-breasted pea-coat. In very cold weather officers wore a black astrakhan cap and all ranks received special cold and foul-weather clothing. In hot weather officers wore a white uniform while petty officers and ratings wore the white cap cover. Personnel serving on shore installations or in the coastal artillery wore Army uniforms often the obsolete 1922 pattern with Navy head-dress and rank badges. Insignia:Officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs and an the greatcoat and white tunic shoulder straps. Other ranks wore chevrons on the upper left sleeve. The branch or corps of officers was identified by the colour which appeared as 'lights' between the rank distinction lace. Petty officers had gold while conscripts had red branch of service badges above their rank chevrons. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:42:04 GMT 1
Kongeriget DanmarkKingdom of DenmarkARMYThe attack on Denmark was planned as a part of the German Operation Weserübung - the German plan for an invasion of Norway. In order to capture Norway the Germans needed to control the air fields at Aalborg in northern Jutland. Additionally, the Luftwaffe high command was in favour of occupying Denmark in order to extend the German air-defence system northwards, making it harder for British bombers to outflank the system from the north when attacking cities in Germany. When the Germans invaded Denmark in the early hours of April 9, 1940 the given pretext for the following occupation of Denmark was to protect her from attack by Britain, and so German troops were ordered to make the take-over as peaceful and friendly as possible. The German ground campaign against Denmark was the briefest on record in military history (lasting only 4 hours), the Danes fought bravely considering the massive German superiority, with clashes in Southern Jutland between Danish and German soldiers, and around Amalienborg Castle in Copenhagen between German soldiers and Royal Guards. The Danes suffered 20 killed (11 of the Army, 2 of the Army Aviation and 7 from the Navy and 32 wounded, while the remnants either surrendered to the Germans or fled to Sweden through Helsingør. The German casualties were relatively heavy for such a short campaign: 50 killed, 75 wounded, 2 captured, 12 armoured cars destroyed, 3 tanks damaged and one Heinkel He 111 bomber shot down. The German authorities allowed King Christian X and the Social Democratic government under Prime Minister Thorvald Stauning to exercise limited power, while all questions relating to the occupying power were the subject of negotiation between the two parties. The Danish forces were to continue to exist, but in much reduced circumstances, with a total strength not exceeding 3300 men. These consisted of the Royal Life Guards, trained conscripts and conscripts required for maintenance and repair work. In addition there were a number of reserve officers and NCOs undergoing training in the Army Officers' School. Relations between the two countries deteriorated, however, and the Germans imposed restrictions which in November 1942 banned Danish soldiers and the wearing of military uniform from Jutland. The Danish Army was then concentrated in Sjaelland and the Island of Funen. The final act came in August 1943 when the Germans took the Danish garrison by surprise and disarmed it after a short fight. Thereafter all Danish military personnel were made prisoners-of-war, and the armed forces disbanded. Organisation:The Danish Defence Act of 1937 set up a peacetime establishment of two divisions, an independent anti-aircraft and engineer regiment, an army air force, the Bornholm garrison, a transport battalion and a general headquarters. In peacetime the regiments and battalions were no more than a small administrative staff responsible for the training of the annual intake of 6599 conscripts who were allocated as follows: • 4340 to the infantry, • 465 to the Life Guards, • 374 to the cavalry, • 1,120 to the artillery, • and 300 men to the engineers. On April 8, 1940 there were 6600 conscripts with eleven month's training service with the colours, as well as a further 2050 non-combatants. During the German invasion part of this force was on leave, while a further seven per cent were unfit for duty. The Sjælland Division (located on Sealand) had its headquarters in Copenhagen and consisted of the Life Guards, the 1st, 4th and 5th Infantry Regiments, the Guards Hussars, the 1st and 2nd Field Artillery Regiments, the 13th Anti-Aircraft Battalion and an engineer battalion. The Jyllands Division (located in Jutland) had its headquarters in Viborg with the 2nd, 3rd, 6th and 7th Infantry Regiments the infantry pioneer regiment, the Jutland Dragoon Regiment, the 3rd Field Artillery Regiment, the 14th AntiAircraft Battalion, and the 2nd Engineer Battalion. The establishment strength of an infantry regiment was 3000 of all ranks who were armed with Krag-Jørgensen M.1889 rifles and Bayard M1910 pistols. The supporting arms of the regiment consisted of: • 256 light machine guns (Madsen M.1924); • 32 heavy machine guns (Madsen M.1929); • 20 horse drawn machine guns (Madsen M29); • 20 heavy mortars; • 6 horse-drawn anti-tank guns (37 mm Bofors M.1936); An artillery regiment consisted of a staff, and four battalions each of three batteries. Artillery pieces used were Krupp 75mm field guns, Schneider 105mm guns and Schneider 50mm howitzers. Uniforms:In 1940 Danish Army uniform was in the process of change, and a new khaki uniform with brown leather equipment and footwear was replacing the old uniform with its black leather equipment and footwear. Denmark's neutrality and peacetime economies meant that the changeover only took place slowly, and when the Germans invaded in April 1940 they encountered soldiers dressed in both grey and khaki uniforms with a mixture of brown and black equipment. Generally speaking officers and regular NCOs wore khaki, but the bulk of the Army and in particular conscripts wore grey tunics and greatcoats, light blue trousers, and black leather equipment. The khaki uniform consisted of a single-breasted tunic with stand-and-fall collar fastened with six bronzed buttons and pleated patch pockets. The greatcoat was double-breasted with two rows of six buttons and a large fall collar. Trousers were worn rolled half way up the calf outside the leather lace-up field boots. The new M1923 (1937) pattern steel helmet had a distinctive shape and had the Danish coat of arms on the front. When the helmet was not needed all ranks wore a khaki side cap. The Royal Danish Life Guards had a field uniform in the same cut, but it was made in a grey-green cloth, not dissimilar to the German field-grey, and later in the war this uniform was adopted by the German-sponsored Schalburg Corps. Insignia:Rank was indicated by the number, width and colour of the lace and braid on the side cap, and the shoulder straps. Corporals wore yellow lace chevrons on the sleeves. For arm-of-service identification, certain categories of commissioned ranks wore gilt metal badges on the tunic collar, while other ranks wore an enamelled badge above the right breast pocket. AIR FORCE The Air Force, which formed part of the Army, consisted of two battalions, one of which was based on Jutland, and the other on Sjaelland. On the morning of 9 April 1940 the Air Force order of battle was as follows: • 1 squadron with 13 interceptor aircraft; • 1 squadron with 8 interceptors and • 2 reconnaissance aircraft; • 1 squadron with 11 reconnaissance and 1 training aircraft; • 1 squadron with 14 reconnaissance aircraft and an autogiro; • the Air Force School with 18 training aircraft. All combat aircraft of the Danish Air Force (including the Fokker D.XXIs) were located at Værløse Air Station west of Copenhagen on the day of the invasion. Following the German disbandment of the remaining Danish armed forces in August 1943, a number of Danish pilots made their way to Sweden where they began to train on Swedish aircraft (Saab B-1 7s). It was planned to form an air support unit for the Danish Brigade in Sweden, but this plan was not completed before the end of the war. Uniforms:Air Force personnel wore Army uniform, although officers do appear to have preferred an open version of the khaki service tunic. Qualified flying personnel wore embroidered `wings' on the right breast. NAVYThe King of Denmark was Commanderin-Chief of the armed forces while actual command of the Navy was exercised by the Naval Minister, Vice-Admiral H. Rechnitzer, who was also responsible for all coastal defences. The personnel of the Navy in 1940 was about 1500 men, and the main base was at Copenhagen. The Navy comprised: • 12 coastal defence ships; • 17 motor torpedo boats; • 9 submarines; • 14 minesweepers; • 6 minelayers; • several fishery control vessels. The Naval Air Service had at its disposal sixty-four aircraft, but only two of these were shipborne. Despite warnings of an imminent German attack on April 9, 1940, no warlike preparations were made for fear of providing provocation. When it was reported that large numbers of German warships and transports were sailing in Danish waters through Storebælt (Great Belt), Danish ships were ordered not to open fire unless fired upon. As the German ships were not resisted there was no fighting and no ships were sunk at sea. The Danish Navy continued to exist under the German occupation and even undertook some local minesweeping, but it was not long before relations between the two countries deteriorated to such an extent that the Danes prepared to sail their ships to Sweden, or scuttle them. On August 29, 1943, following the failure of German attempts to negotiate the surrender of the sovereignty of the Danish Navy, 31 vessels were scuttled. Uniforms:Danish Navy uniform, as worn during World War II, was originally introduced in the 1870s and amended in 1909 and 1932. Officers, chief petty officers and petty officers wore a peaked cap, reefer jacket with white shirt and black tie, matching navy-blue trousers, and black shoes and socks. The navy-blue greatcoat was double-breasted, and here the Royal Danish Navy departed from the established practice and officers wore rank distinction lace on the greatcoat cuffs, instead of on the shoulder straps. Ratings in square rig wore the standard sailor's cap with a circular cockade in the national colours on the right side, and a blue jumper worn outside bell-bottomed trousers. Under the jumper was worn a white shirt with blue denim collar edged with three white lines, and a black scarf. In summer all ranks wore a white cap cover and there were white versions of both officers' and ratings' uniforms. Insignia:The rank group was indicated by the cap badge, and the rank by the number of bands and width of the rank distinction lace on the cuffs of officers and chief petty officers. Ratings and petty officers wore their rank badges on the upper sleeve. For arm-of-service distinction, officers serving in special branches such as the reserve or coastal artillery wore a letter (`R' with anchor or `K') inside the `curl' of the rank distinction lace, while other branches were identified by coloured backing or `lights' which appeared between the rank distinction lace. Naval aviators wore the letter `F' (Flyver) in the `curl' and gold-embroidered wings on the breast. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHSDanish soldiers with their M.1889 rifles and bicycles.Danish troops photographed at Bredevad shortly before the German attack.Reconstruction of the situation on Amalienborg Slot at 05:50 A.M. on April 9, 1940. Officer on Guard, Cpt. P.A.C. Henningsen (right) orders the Royal Guardsmen towards the Residenspalæet to engage the advancing Germans.Danish soldiers with their 20 mm Madsen heavy machine gun at Åbenrå on April 9, 1940.For those interested (and who understand Norwegian), you could read the Wikipedia article I wrote about the German invasion of Denmark here. For Danish users, the article has been translated into Danish as well Danish. An English (but not as detailed) version can be found here.
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:44:17 GMT 1
Kongeriket NorgeKingdom of NorwayARMYIn 1939, after more than a hundred years of peace, Norway did not possess a large standing army and her government considered that effective national defence against a major power was impossible. The Soviet Union's invasion of Finland in 1939 was a severe shock, and during the winter a sizeable Norwegian force was established in northern Norway. After the Soviet Union signed an armistice with the Finns on March 13, 1940 however, the force was disbanded. When the Germans invaded on April 9, the Norwegian Army was only partially mobilised and in the process of training new recruits. But despite these disadvantages, Norway put up a stubborn fight and it was two months before the country was completely overrun and the British, French and Polish contingents evicted. The government finally capitulated on June 9, 1940. After bitter fighting, the Norwegians casualties amounted to 1335 killed and wounded. Small contingents of Norwegians managed to escape to England, while others crossed into Sweden. Organisation:King Haakon VII was Commander-in-Chief of a basically territorial army, which when fully mobilised, was to have had a strength of about roo,ooo men. A small cadre of regular officers and NCOs was responsible for running the Army and for the training of conscripts. The country was divided into six Military Districts or Commands with their headquarters in Halden, Oslo, Kristiansand, Bergen, Trondheim and Harstad. Each Command was initially expected to field a brigade, later to be expanded to a division and garrison and ancillary troops. An infantry division comprised a staff, two or three infantry regiments, and either a field artillery regiment, or a mountain artillery battalion. The 2nd Infantry Division in Oslo included the Royal Guard and a cavalry regiment. The 5th and 6th infantry divisions had, in addition, a pioneer and flying battalion. An infantry regiment had a strength of 3750 men armed with Krag-Jørgensen M1894 rifles. Some regiments had a bicycle company for reconnaissance duties, which in winter became a ski troop. Support weapons consisted of: • 96 light machine guns (6.5 mm Madsen m/24); • 36 heavy machine guns (Colt-Browning m/29); • 8 heavy mortars. Field artillery regiments had three battalions of two or three batteries of four guns. The first and second battalions were equipped with Kongsberg t 20mm field howitzers, while the third battalion acted as a reserve with three batteries of Ehrhardt 75 mm M1901 field guns. All artillery pieces were horsedrawn. The anti-aircraft regiment was motorised and equipped with Madsen 20 mm heavy machine guns, and Kongsberg 75mm M1932 anti-aircraft guns. Uniforms:The grey-green uniform of the Norwegian Army was originally introduced in 1912. The uniform was highly standardised and the same for all ranks. The basic uniform for officers and other ranks is illustrated in figure 37, but additionally there was a side cap with piped flap and two patterns of steel helmet. The first helmet was the British Mark 1 which was being replaced by the Swedish civil defence helmet (designated M1931 by the Norwegians). In 1935 an oval stamped badge bearing the Norwegian lion was issued for wear on the front of the helmet. Over the tunic, which existed in three patterns, a double-breasted waterrepellent grey-green cotton-duck jacket without insignia was often worn. Norwegian officers and men also wore sheepskin coats and other items of civilian winter clothing. Insignia:Rank distinction lace appeared on the kepi, tunic collar and greatcoat shoulder straps, while NCOs had rank distinctions on the cuffs. Arm of service was indicated by the colour and design of the uniform buttons. AIR FORCE By midday on April 9, 1940 the German armed forces had occupied nearly all the airfields and seaplane bases south of Narvik, and most of Norway's semimodern fighters (Gloster Gladiators) had been destroyed in the defence of Oslo on the opening day of the German invasion. Thereafter, the Air Force took little part in the fighting. The Air Force was organised in three flights (one each of fighters, bombers and reconnaissance aircraft) with a total of 76 aircraft and 940 men, and was intended to play a ground-support role. Uniforms:Air Service personnel wore Army uniforms with a bright green arm-of-service colour as piping on the kepi, side-cap, tunic, greatcoat and trousers. The silver buttons bore a horizontal propeller and a crown. Insignia:Rank distinction lace appeared on the kepi, tunic collar and greatcoat shoulder straps. NCOs wore their rank badges on the cuffs. There were also distinctive patterns of cap badge for NCOs, officers and generals. There were no branch or arm-ofservice badges as such, but pilots and observers wore silver-embroidered wings on the right breast. NAVY On April 8, 1940, the day before the German invasion, 5200 officers and men were serving in the Navy and its Air Service. Despite the fact that the bulk of the vessels of the Norwegian Navy were obsolete, they gave a good account of themselves, during the hostilities with Germany. Indeed, during the fighting most of them were put out of action or sunk. There were initially 113 Vessels, comprising: • 2 small armoured cruisers (Norge and Eidsvoll); • 10 minelayers; • 7 destroyers; • 3 large `Trygg' class torpedo boats; • 14 torpedo boats; • 9 submarines; • 8 minesweepers; • 9 patrol boats; • 49 Vessels converted to patrol boats. Only 13 of these made it to British ports after capitulation. On April 22, 1940 while fighting was still in progress, the Norwegian Government decided to requisition the whole Norwegian merchant fleet still under its control. 1000 ships (totalling 4,000,000 tons) manned by 30,000 seamen were saved for the Allied cause, and played an indispensable part in the Battle of the Atlantic. In addition to the fleet there were coastal fortifications armed with guns of various calibres at Oscarborg, Oslofjord, Kristiansand, Bergen and Agdenes, which were manned by 308 officers and 2095 other ranks. The Norwegian Naval Air Service had been formed as early as 1915, and because of its small size necessarily played only a limited role in the war against Germany. Some Navy aircraft did, however, fly to northern Norway after the initial German attack, and they continued to operate from there until fighting ceased on June 7, 1940. Uniforms:The uniform worn during the 1940 campaign was based on the regulations of 1907, and in most respects conformed to the standard international pattern. Officers, cadets and petty officers (quartermasters) wore a peaked cap, double-breasted reefer jacket with white shirt and black tie, matching blue trousers and black shoes. The greatcoat was double-breasted. Ratings wore the uniform illustrated in figure 39, over which, in cold weather, they wore a double-breasted pea-coat. The winter head-dress for officers was a black astrakhan cap on which was a special pattern of cap badge. Insignia:Rank was indicated by the pattern of cap badge for admirals, officers, chief petty officers, quartermasters, cadets and petty officers. As in other Scandinavian navies, conscripts had special insignia. Rank distinction lace appeared on the reefer cuffs and on the greatcoat shoulder straps. Ratings wore their rank badges on the upper left sleeve. As arm-of-service distinctions, officers in certain branches were identified by the shape of the `curl' on the rank distinction lace, or the absence of a `curl', and the colour of the `lights' between the rank distinction lace. Chief petty officers had gold badges while other petty officers and ratings wore red branch badges above their rank badges. Naval Air Service personnel wore naval uniform while qualified flying personnel wore gold-embroidered wings on the right breast. Ratings wore their uniform with special branch and trade badges incorporating wings and the letter `A' on the upper left sleeve. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHSA photo from Varangerbataljonen. Soldier Harald Tunstad demonstrates the infantry's field equipment on the occassion of Lt. Col. Edvard Os taking over the command of the battalion. Notice the new steel helmet of Baltic design.A Lieutenant of the Norwegian Army's Air Force.Norwegian troops on their way southwards to Rena to make telephone lines, April 21, 1940.Machinegunner Odd Olsen from Gjøvik on a photograph taken by Per Olof Stømmer shortly before he was killed in action at Eastern Æra, where the Norwegians won over the advancing German troops May 1-2, 1940. Norwegian troops at Hvalmoen near Hønefoss has received information about approaching Germans and march out to halt them as best as they can.A Norwegian company in the backyard of the Dombås Tourist Hotel, ready to move out to engage the German Fallschirmjägers. The population at Dombås made the Norwegian winter camouflage uniforms (as seen here) in one evening of the Germans' parachutes. Norwegian soldiers with a Colt m/29 heavy machine gun.Kong Haakon VII and Crown Prince Olav under the "King Birch" (Kongebjørka) in Molde as they took cover during a German air attack in the last weekend of April 1940.King Haakon VII inspects a Norwegian crew aboard a navy ship of the Norwegian Armed Forces in Exile.
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:48:43 GMT 1
Koninkrijk BelgiëRoyaume de BelgiqueKönigreich BelgienKingdom of Belgium ARMYIn 1914 neutral Belgium had been suddenly attacked by the German Army and had experienced four years of trench warfare. After the German occupation of the Rhineland in 1936 the country was again jolted into awareness of impending danger. National service was extended from 8 to 12 months, the military budget increased by 15 per cent, and new fortifications were constructed. But this could not conceal the fact that military thinking had not progressed beyond the trenches of World War I. Armour, for example, was only considered an offensive weapon, and Belgium, whose Army had a purely defensive role, had no tank units. Belgium fielded 22 divisions against the invading forces of Army Group B in 1940, and the tenacity of the Belgian infantry at first surprised the Germans. Nonetheless, the Belgian army was on the point of collapse within two weeks of the invasion, and on 28 May the last units surrendered. After 18 days of fighting, casualties were 23,350 killed and wounded. Organisation:The 100,000-strong Belgian Army under its Commander-inChief, King Leopold, was basically a standing army but one which relied on conscription for its annual intake of recruits. Its strength on mobilization was in the region of 550,000 men, which for a small country of eight million people was a remarkable feat. The country was divided into three army corps areas based on Brussels, Antwerp and Liege, a cavalry corps in Brussels, an army artillery brigade in Antwerp, the Ardennes Rifle Corps in Namur, as well as three independent frontier bicycle battalions, six infantry divisions, and two cavalry divisions. The army corps comprised a staff, two infantry divisions, one corps artillery regiment, and one pioneer regiment. An infantry division had a staff, and three infantry regiments. Each regiment had 3000 men armed with Mauser M35 rifles. The support weapons of a regiment were: • 108 light machine guns (Browning M30); • 52 heavy machine guns (Maxim M08) ; • 108 light mortars; • 9 heavy mortars or infantry guns; • 6 anti-tank guns. The corps artillery regiment had four battalions each with two batteries. Transport was partly horsedrawn and partly motorised. The corps' guns were 16 Schneider 155 mm M17 field howitzers, 8 Schneider 105mm M13 guns and 8 Cockerill 120mm M32 field guns. Just before the war there was a rapid attempt to improve mobility and one of the two divisions in the Ardennes Rifle Corps and the two cavalry divisions received motor vehicles. The Motorised Cavalry Corps had a staff, two cavalry divisions, one corps artillery regiment and a bicycle pioneer battalion. A cavalry division had three mixed regiments each with a battalion of cavalry, a battalion of motorcyclists, an armoured car squadron, and a training squadron. Uniforms:During World War I, the Belgian Army adopted khaki uniforms mainly because Britain was the only country providing sufficient new uniforms to replace the obsolete coloured ones then in use. The Belgian soldier of 1939, however, had a predominantly French appearance which was emphasised by the Adrian steel helmet and the habit of wearing the greatcoat skirts folded back. In complete contrast, the officers looked British, especially after 1935 when an open tunic for wear with collar and tie was introduced. The Ardennes Rifles Corps wore a variation on this basic style: a green beret with boar's head badge, a shortened version of the greatcoat and long leather leggings. Mechanised troops received either a fibre helmet of Belgian design, or the French steel helmet for motorised troops, both of which were adorned in front with a lion's head. In addition mechanised troops received a leather jacket and breeches with long leggings, or a one-piece khaki overall. Insignia:Rank distinctions appeared on the peaked cap, side cap, and on the collar patches and shoulder straps. Other ranks also wore their rank badges on the cuffs. The primary means of identifying the arm of service was the colour of the collar patches and the collar patch piping. In addition there was an extensive range of yellow metal badges which appeared on the head-gear, collar patches and on the shoulder straps. Finally, a number of staff and administrative functions were identified by embroidered badges on the collar patches and also sometimes on the front of the peaked cap. Air ForceOn 1 March 1920 an air force was formed as part of the Belgian Army. From its beginning until the outbreak of war the Air Force was plagued by a shortage of modern aircraft. While developing its own fighter (the Renard R-36), Belgium imported aircraft from England and the USA. When the Germans invaded only 180 of the 234 aircraft were operational, and most of these were obsolete. All but one of the few modern Hurricanes were destroyed on the ground at Schaffen before the Belgian aircraft could disperse. Organisation:In May 1940 the Aeronautique Militaire was grouped together with the Observer Service and Anti-Aircraft Artillery to form the Territorial Air Defence (Defense Aeronautique du Territoire or DAT). The Belgian Air Force consisted of three regiments: the 1st an observation and Army co-operation unit; the 2nd a fighter regiment, and the 3rd a reconnaissance and bombing regiment. In addition there was one auxiliary regiment with ancillary and refuelling companies. The 1st Air Regiment comprised six squadrons, with a total of 62 serviceable machines. The 2nd air regiment also had six squadrons and totalled 79 aircraft. The 3rd Air Regiment totalled 41 aircraft in four squadrons. Each flying squadron had a complementary anti-aircraft squadron (Escadrille de Pare). Uniforms:There were two basic uniforms in the Air Force. The first was that of the Army of which the Air Force was a branch. The second was a bluegrey air force uniform which was introduced for wear by the regular cadre of flying personnel. This situation was further complicated by the continued wearing of regimental uniform by a number of Air Force officers. The blue-grey uniform is illustrated by figure 46. In addition there was a peaked cap with black band and black peak and a double-breasted, blue-grey greatcoat. More common than the breeches and boots were long blue-grey trousers with black shoes. Insignia:Rank badges on the bluegrey uniform were the same as those worn on the khaki uniform. The arm-of-service colour which appeared on the collar patches of khaki uniforms was bright blue with red piping. Enamelled squadron badges were worn on the right breast pocket. NAVYBy the end of the 19th century, the Belgian Navy had virtually ceased to exist, and it was not until the end of World War I that attempts were made to re-form it. During the inter-war years this tiny force was once again disbanded because of lack of funds, and it was only on 15 September 1939 that the Marine Korps (later Corps de Marine) was again established. In November 1939 conscripts with previous naval experience were transferred from the Army to the Corps de Marine which then had a theoretical strength of 30 officers (mainly Army reservists with merchant marine experience), 98 petty officers, and 513 petty officers second class and ratings. These were to provide the personnel for a headquarters and 1st Squadron at Ostende, 2nd Squadron at Zeebrugge, 3rd Squadron at Antwerp, and a replacement and training squadron. Vessels consisted of small coastal craft armed with one 47mm gun and two machine guns, while other vessels were requisitioned from their civilian owners. Some large wooden trawlers were used as minesweepers. There were two coastal guns - one in Antwerp and the other in Zeebrugge - which were manned by Army crews. During the German invasion, the Navy lost about a quarter of its personnel, while a number of survivors found their way to England. By May 1943 the Belgian section of the British Royal Navy had seven ships and about 350 men. Uniforms:New regulations for Belgian Navy uniform were published in January 1940, and so any alterations to existing uniforms were only beginning to percolate through the Navy when Germany invaded. The Belgian uniform followed the 'international' model, but also bore marked similarities to that of the French Navy. Officers and petty officers wore a peaked cap, reefer jacket with white shirt and black tie, long trousers with black shoes and a double-breasted greatcoat. Quartermasters and ratings wore a blue cap with light blue woollen pompom on top and cap tally with Marinekorps in gold. The blue jumper had a blue denim collar edged with three white lines. The pea-coat was double-breasted with two rows of five brass buttons. Insignia:Here the Belgian Navy departed from convention in two respects. Because the Naval Corps was basically a branch of the Army, officers and chief petty officers wore black collar patches piped in light blue on which they wore Army rank badges. Officers and chief petty officers also wore rank distinction lace on the peaked cap in the French manner. In 1940 the seaman's cap legend was changed to readjust Marine. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:51:30 GMT 1
Koninkrijk der NederlandenKingdom of the Netherlands ARMYDuring World War I Holland's neutrality had been respected and during the interwar years her government saw fit to reduce spending to an absolute minimum. Germany's warlike stance, and warnings from well-informed sources failed to alert the Dutch government to the strong possibility that this time her neutrality would be violated. Thus it was not until April 1940 that the Dutch armed forces were mobilised. Some German officers who had misgivings about invading a neutral country informed the Dutch of the exact date of the invasion, and Dutch forces were placed on an alert from early morning on 10 May 1940 Despite the warning and many valiant acts of selfsacrifice, the German invasion was over in five days and Holland was forced to capitulate. After the war the Dutch command was blamed for this poor performance, but in fact there was little the Dutch could have done in the circumstances. The German High Command was impressed by the tenacity of the Dutch Army but it had neither the equipment, nor the appropriate training and experience to put up much more than a token resistance against the invading forces. Many Dutchmen avoided German capture and eventually reached England, where they continued their struggle. Organisation:The Army consisted of a small professional cadre of 1500 officers and 6500 other ranks which was responsible for maintaining the military establishment, and for the training of the annual intake of 60,000 conscripts, who were eligible for eleven months military service between the ages of 20 and 40. The field army on mobilisation numbered 114,000 men, or, including reserves, 270,000 all ranks. The country was divided into four army corps based on Amsterdam, Arnhem, Breda and Amersfoort. An army corps comprised a corps staff, two infantry divisions, one or two heavy artillery regiments, one independent artillery battalion, and a signals and reconnaissance battalion. In addition, there was a light brigade (consisting of a staff, signals battalion, armoured car squadron, cyclist regiment, two hussar regiments and one horse artillery regiment) and an anti-aircraft brigade with staff and two anti-aircraft regiments. An infantry regiment had a strength of 2691 all ranks armed with Mannlicher M9 rifles and FN 9mm pistols. Support weapons consisted of: • 72 light machine guns (Lewis M20) ; • 36 heavy machine guns (Schwarzlose M08/15); • 6 heavy mortars; • 4 anti-tank guns. Uniforms:A grey-green uniform was introduced in 1912, but the colour soon underwent a change, so that by the outbreak of war in 1940 the colour was almost identical to German field-grey. The issue uniform was simple, but outdated in the sense that the cut was still tight and restricting, and the full lining made it hot in summer and difficult to dry when wet. In 1937 the uniform underwent certain modifications which made it more practical. The stiff stand collar became a softer stand-and-fall pattern, exterior pockets were added, breeches were introduced for mounted personnel, and a new comfortable side cap became the basic form of head-dress. Before the outbreak of war the regulars wore a black dress uniform when not on active duty, while cavalry and horse artillery retained vestiges of their former full-dress uniforms. The Dutch issue tunic had a stand or stand-and-fall collar, seven matt bronzed buttons in front, two slash breast pockets with pointed flap and button, and round cuffs. The shoulder straps, which were stitched down, ended in a roll which prevented the equipment from slipping off the shoulders. The greatcoat was double-breasted with a large fall collar, two rows of five metal buttons, turn-back cuffs, slanting slash side pockets with rectangular flaps, and a half-belt at the back fastened with three buttons. There were no shoulder straps or piping on the greatcoat. In 1940 head-dress consisted of the side cap or steel helmet. The stiff shako fell into disuse in spring 1940 although some officers continued to wear it. The side cap was introduced in 1937 and was piped in arm-of-service colour for other ranks, or metallic braid for officers. All unmounted other ranks wore matching knickerbockers and puttees, while officers, warrant officers and NCOs wore matching breeches (sometimes piped) and black riding boots or ankle boots and leather gaiters: Gloves were of brown leather or grey-green wool. Crews of enclosed armoured vehicles wore a brimless helmet and a one-piece grey overall. Officers and warrant officers wore a brown leather waistbelt with a brass two-pronged buckle and leather crossstrap. On the right they usually carried the Belgian 9mm FN short automatic pistol in a brown leather holster. Insignia:General officers were distinguished by a special peaked cap, goldembroidered oak leaves on the tunic collar and two rows of crimson piping on the breeches. All officers had gold braid piping on the side cap, and badges of rank on the tunic and greatcoat collar. Other ranks wore sleeve badges of rank. Arm of service was identified by the colour of the piping on the side cap, tunic collar and cuffs and breeches of officers and warrant officers. The rank distinction lace worn on the sleeves by NCOs and men was edged in arm-of-service colour. Some units and formations wore a metal badge on the left of the side cap. AIR FORCEIn 1937 the Dutch government, alarmed by Germany's warlike stance, embarked on a programme of limited expansion and re-organisation of the Army Air Force. The Air Force remained part of the Army but became a semi-independent arm to which was added, in November 1938, anti-aircraft artillery, searchlight sections and air observer corps; and the whole was designated Air Defence Command. In May 1940 the active element of the Army Air Force was divided into two air regiments; the first consisting of four fighter squadrons, one bomber and one reconnaissance squadron, and the second consisting of four reconnaissance wings and two fighter squadrons. It was decided to replace the obsolete aircraft then in service (Fokker DVII fighters and Fokker CL and CV twoseater reconnaissance planes), and orders were sent out for 36 Fokker DXXI single-seater fighters, 36 Fokker GIA twin-engined fighters, 16 Fokker TV bombers and (from the United States) 18 Douglas DB-8A-3N attack bombers. A further 23 Curtiss Hawk 75A singleseat fighters were also ordered but these were not delivered by the invasion. On 10 May 1940 the Army Air Service had 139 operational aircraft at its disposal, although not all of them were the newer types. Nearly all of these were destroyed as a result of the German surprise attacks on Dutch airfields. Personnel losses were about 8000 which included 500 men taken prisoner. Uniforms and insignia:Air Force personnel wore Army uniforms with blue piping and an embroidered badge consisting of a radial engine and twinbladed propeller on their collars. Qualified pilots and observers had a gilt metal badge which was worn on the left breast of the tunic and greatcoat. Flying clothing was of the French pattern and consisted of a leather flying helmet or a steel helmet and doublebreasted leather jacket. The rank stars in metal were affixed to the collar. NAVYBefore the War the Dutch Navy in European waters was intended primarily for local coastal defence and mine-laying work in the North Sea; its most powerful units were stationed in the Dutch East Indies. By 1939, however, new warships were being constructed which were suitable for both the Far East and Europe. In May 1940 the Chief of Naval Staff and Commander-in-Chief of Naval Forces was Vice-Admiral J. Th. Furstner. Personnel was about 11,750 men including Marines. The vessels consisted of: • 4 cruisers; • 8 destroyers; • 23 submarines; • 7 escort and patrol vessels; • 5 motor torpedo-boats; • 28 mine-sweepers. The Navy played a limited if courageous role in the battle for Holland. Ships patrolled the coastline giving supporting fire to land forces, and in one unique instance a Dutch ship shelled a beach on which German troop-carrying aircraft were landing. Small craft assisted by transporting troops and supplies. When defeat became inevitable, Dutch ships ferried troops across the sea, and 20,000 men reached Britain. The bulk of the Dutch Navy's aircraft were stationed in the Dutch East Indies, although in May 1940 it disposed of 44 seaplanes and 30 training aircraft in Holland. The Naval Air Service carried out a number of reconnaissance missions and shot down one modern German fighter, but by 13 May there was hardly a serviceable aircraft left. On Tuesday 14 May, the day of the Dutch capitulation, the last six seaplanes at Veere left for France, and during the course of the day were followed by any machines able to fly. During the campaign in Holland the Naval Air Service had lost 18 seaplanes at their moorings, and all the trainers on the ground. Uniforms:The uniform worn during World War II was governed by regulations which came into force in April 1933. The uniform for officers followed the standard pattern, although instead of a greatcoat issue wear was a frock coat with rank distinction lace on the cuffs. The uniform for ratings is illustrated by figure 43, although the illustration shows the old-pattern cap tally, which was replaced at the beginning of the war by one with block lettering. The Dutch sailor also had a double-breasted peacoat with brass buttons. For all ranks there were white uniforms for summer and tropical wear which included white covers for the standard head-dress, and a white sun helmet or straw panama hat. Insignia:Officers and warrant officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs and on the shoulder straps of the white tunic. Senior petty officers wore their rank badges on the cuffs of the blue uniform, and on the collar patches of the Marine Corps (grey-green) and tropical uniforms. Ratings wore cuff rank badges. Officers wore their arm-of-service emblem in the centre of the cap badge and on the reefer jacket collar. Speciality insignia was worn on the upper left sleeve. Naval aircrew wore gilt metal `wings' on the left breast. MarinesOn May 10, 1940,the Korpsmariniers (originally formed in 1665 and in action against the English in 1667) was stationed in Rotterdam. The Rotterdam garrison included one hundred trained conscripts 1st Class, one hundred 3rd Class, and one hundred with only three months' service. At the naval depot there were a further 150 Marines, go conscripts and 60o new recruits. Despite their small number and lack of training, the Marines fought stubbornly against German parachute troops both on the Zuider Zee and in defence of the Maas bridges at Rotterdam, until, on 1 4 May 1940, they surrendered together with all other forces in Holland. Uniforms and insignia:The fielddress of the Dutch Marine Corps was that of the Army, but during the German invasion in May 1 940 the Marines wore the M1928 steel helmet painted black with a white metal foul-anchor on the front and a navy-blue double-breasted greatcoat with brass buttons. Rank badges were worn as on the Navy uniform. COLOUR CHARTSPHOTOGRAPHS
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:53:14 GMT 1
Краљевина ЈугославијаKraljevina JugoslavijaKingdom of YugoslaviaARMYThe titular head of the armed forces was the King. On March 27, 1941 a group of Army officers overthrew the Regent Prince Pavle Karađorđević and declared Crown Prince Petar Karađorđević King, although technically he was under age. This coup was seen abroad as a spontaneous patriotic rejectionof the unpopular alliance with Germany although the coup had been planned long before negotiations for the alliance began. The Germans imidiate prepared to invade. When the Germans attacked at 5. 15 am on April 6, 1941, from bases in Bulgaria, the Yugoslav Army (including some 400,000 recent draftees) was spread out along 1800 miles of border. The front soon crumbled and on 9 April further massive attacks were launched from Austria and Hungary. Two days later the Italians and Hungarians joined in the fray. By April 13 organised resistance was coming to an end and on 17 April 1941 Yugoslavia capitulated. 6028 officers and 337,684 other ranks were captured by the Germans. Organisation:Yugoslavia had a standing army and the male population was liable for military service from the age of 20. The first one and a half years was done in the active army, followed by 18 years in the reserve, and a final ten years in the reserve of the reserve army. The peacetime strength of the Army was 148,000 and mobilised strength approximately 1,400,000 men. The Army was divided into five army corps with headquarters in Neusatz, Sarajevo, Uskup Agram and Nis. They comprised: • 16 infantry divisions; • 1 independent guards division; 2 cavalry divisions; • 32 regiments of artillery (a total of go battalions and 2I3 batteries) ; • 6 regiments of engineers; various supporting arms. An army corps consisted of a headquarters and three or four infantry divisions; an infantry division had a headquarters, two to four infantry regiments, one or two artillery regiments or an independent artillery battalion and technical troops. Two infantry divisions were organize slightly differently and were classified as mountain divisions. The infantry regiments were 2400 men strong, and their support weapons were 168 machine guns and four infantry guns. The guards division had a headquarters, one infantry regiment and one cavalry brigade and one field artillery regiment; cavalry division had a headquarters, two cavalry brigades, one bicycle battalion, one battalion of horse artillery, and an engineer unit. The invasion of Yugoslavia had obliged Hitler to postpone the invasion of the Soviet Union by one vital month. The Germans were so anxious to redeploy that the task of rounding-up, disarming and demobilising the Yugoslav Army was incompletely carried out. Thousands of Yugoslav soldiers, perhaps as many as 300,000, retained their arms and either went home or joined bands of soldiers in the mountains. It was these men and their officers who, as the Yugoslav Army in the Homeland, were the first to raise the banner of resistance in Germanoccupied Europe. Uniforms:In 1941 the uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Army was basically that of the Serbian Army in World War I. Although new uniforms were being gradually introduced, many soldiers still wore the obsolete pattern. The colour of the issue uniform was a brownish grey, while officer's uniform, made of superior quality cloth, were a greener, lighter colour. The typical service dress for officers is illustrated in figure 117. The greatcoat was double-breasted with two rows of six buttons, matching collar, turn-back cuffs. The uniform worn by all other Army ranks consisted of a French Adrian steel helmet with stamped metal Yugoslav coat of arms on the front, side cap with cockade in the national colours on the front, tunic, greatcoat and pantaloons worn with puttees and ankle boots. There was a more comfortable and practical uniform for mountain troops which included a loosely cut tunic and long baggy trousers gathered at the ankle. Crews of armoured fighting vehicles wore the French helmet for motorised troops and a brown leather double-breasted jacket. Insignia:All ranks wore their rank badges on the shoulder straps. The shoulder straps for officers were based on the Russian Tsarist model, although the stars were similar to those used on German shoulder straps. Another unusual feature was the imitation gold and silver lace stamped out of metal. There was also a special system of rank badges for wear on raincoats, anoraks and other kinds of protective clothing. Arm-of-service colours in the form of piping appeared on the head-dress, tunic, greatcoat and trousers and on the shoulder straps and collar patches on the greatcoats. Regimental and academic badges in metal were worn on the breast pockets of the tunic. AIR FORCEThe Army Air Service, which included balloon companies and the anti-aircraft artillery, came under the Minister of War. In 1938 the Air Force was organised in three brigades with a total of 14 bomber, eight fighter and 2 1 reconnaissance flights. Aircraft strength was estimated at 500 with a further 30o reserve and training aircraft. These totals included 30 Italian Savoia-Marchetti bombers, 70 Dornier Do17Ks and 5o Bristol Blenheims. 73 fighters were German Bf 109Es (although only 46 were serviceable when war broke out) and 40 were Hurricanes. Pitted against the might of the Luftwaffe the Yugoslav Air Force had little chance and by April 13, 1941 had almost ceased to exist. Personnel strength in the flying branch was 980 officers, 1600 non-commissioned officers, 720 air gunners and 7500 other ranks. Uniforms:The grey-blue uniform of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force was iintroduced in 1938 and consisted of peaked cap, side cap, open tunic with patch pockets which was either worn with long matching trousers and black shoes, or matching breeches and black high boots. In the summer months officers and senior regular non-commissioned officers could wear a cap with white cover and white version of the service dress tunic. The other ranks' version of the uniform was similar to that worn by officers but was of poorer quality and cut, with trousers or pantaloons and puttees. The Corps of Anti-Aircraft Artillery had slightly different uniforms although technically belonging to the Air Force. The colour was grey blue but the officer's tunic was in black velvet and the cuffs were piped in black. Badges of rank were only worn on the shoulder straps. Insignia:All ranks wore their rank badges on the shoulder straps, while officers also wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs. Field officers had one and general officers two rows of gold embroidery on the cap peak. General officers also wore five-pointed stars in the French manner on the cuffs of the tunic and greatcoat. The Air Force was divided, as far as arm-of-service distinction was concerned, into four branches. Flying personnel wore a gold-embroidered eagle with out strectched wings above their rank distintion lace on the cuffs and qualified aircrew wore a metal badge above the right breast pocket. Ground personnel did not have the eagle emblem on the cuffs. Engineering officers had red lights to the rank distinction lace on the cuffs and on the shoulder straps, and instead of the bird they had a triangle within a circle on the cuffs. Anti aircraft officers had crossed cannon barrels surmounted by a bird on the cuffs and a black arm-of-service colour. Yugoslav cap badges and qualification badges continued to be worn on British Royal Air Force uniform by members of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force serving with the Allies in the Middle East. NAVYThe Yugoslav Navy, under the command of Vice Admiral Marjan Polic, had an active strength at the beginning of the war of 625 active officers and 5700 men with a further 400 reserve officers and goo men. Because of its small size the Navy was not expected to carry out offensive operations, but to provide support for land operations. It comprised: • 1 training cruiser; • 1 Yarrow Class destroyer; 5 destroyers; • 6 old torpedo boats; 2 submarines; • 6 mine sweepers; • 2 old motor torpedo-boats. The Navy was quickly overwhelmed in the Balkan Campaign with only one submarine and a few smaller craft escaping to join the Allies, while those craft still afloat in or near harbours were taken over by the Italians. Uniforms:Navy uniform corresponded to the international pattern. Officers wore the peaked cap, double-breasted reefer, long trousers with black shoes and double-breasted greatcoat. In the summer months officers wore a white cap cover and open single-breasted jacket. Ratings had the standard square-rig with soft cap bearing a cap tally with 'Ratna Mornarica' in Cyrillic letters below an oval cockade in the national colours. In winter, ratings wore a double-breasted pea-coat. Insignia:Ratings wore inverted white tape chevrons on the left sleeve, while petty officers had blue cloth shoulder straps on which they wore their rank badges. Officers wore both shoulder boards and rank distinction lace on the reefer cuffs, while shoulder boards only were worn on white jacket and greatcoat. Ratings wore red trade badges above their rank chevrons. Officers wore small white metal branch badges on the shoulder boards, while branch colours appeared both there and as lights between the rank lace on the cuffs. Yugoslav personnel serving with the British Royal Navy wore Royal Naval uniform with the Yugoslav cap badge where applicable and sometimes 'Yugoslavia' on both sleeves at shoulder height. Shoulder boards were worn only on the greatcoat and white jacket. COLOUR PLATES:YUGOSLAV ARMED FORCES IN EXILEAbout 900 Yugoslav soldiers were evacuated to the Middle East to form an infantry battalion which was incorporated into the British King's Own Royal Regiment. There was also a Yugoslav troop (2 officers and 14 men) in the 10th Inter-Allied Commando which carried out SOE-type operations in Yugoslavia. A Free Yugoslav Air Force was formed in Amman in Jordan where some 700 airmen, 300 of whom were aircrew, had been assembled. In 1944 two Yugoslav fighter squadrons were formed in the RAF. The first, No. 352, was formed on 22 April, and the second, No. 35I, on 1 July 1944 at Benina. Then from their bases in Italy both squadrons fought in the skies above Yugoslavia before transferring to the Yugoslav Air Force in June 1945. As the war came to an end, and Tito became the undisputed leader of Yugoslavia, many NCOs and men of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force requested to be allowed to join the partisans.
|
|
Joseph_Porta
Pukovnik
Half-Czech / Half-Norwegian
Posts: 398
|
Post by Joseph_Porta on Sept 10, 2009 18:54:35 GMT 1
Βασίλειον της ΕλλάδοςVasíleion tīs ElládosKingdom of GreeceARMYFrom 1935 until the German invasion, Greece was a constitutional monarchy under King George II, but the actual power was in the hands of her dictator President General Metaxas. The Greek armed forces, like most of those of the smaller nations, suffered from a shortage of modern weapons and motor transport. However, the mountainous frontier with Albania was ideal for defensive fighting, and the natural sturdiness of her soldiers proved too much for the Italian forces which invaded on October 28, 1940. The outnumbered Greek forces were- able not only to contain the Italian attack, but force the invaders back into Albania, where, with the British aid in men and materiel, they were able to hold them until the Germans invaded from Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. This attack, by the best army in Europe, overwhelmed the Greek defences, and despite bitter resistance the Germans forced the Greek Army in eastern Macedonia to capitulate and the Allies to retreat. On April 20 the Greek Epirus Army surrendered and on April 22 the Allies began their evacuation of Greece. Organisation:The Commander-in Chief of the Greek Armed Forces was General Papagos and the control of the Army was exercised by a General Headquarters and five Army Corps areas. In 1940, just before the Italian attack, Greece mobilised her armed forces. The field army was organised in two Army Groups, six general headquarters, six infantry and nine mountain divisions, four mountain brigades and one cavalry division. At the outbreak of war the Army numbered ¢30,000 men, but losses were heavy and some 60,000 men were killed, wounded or missing after the winter fighting. In March 1941, shortly before the German invasion, the Greek Army, under four army high commands and three general headquarters, comprised: • 5 infantry divisions; • 4 mountain divisions; • 1 infantry brigade; • 1 motorised division; • 1 cavalry division. In March 1941, total strength was 540,000 men, but this included 50,000 recruits with only one month's training. The German invasion cost the Greeks 15,700 battle casualties; about 220,000 Greek soldiers were taken prisoner, but released soon after. The army corps each consisted of two to four infantry or mountain divisions. I, II, III, IV Corps were each supported by a heavy artillery regiment of 7 batteries (8x85mm, 8x 105mm and 12 x 155mm guns) while V Corps had 4 x 85mm guns, 4x 105mm guns and 4 static six-inch guns. Each corps also had its own antiaircraft support of 88mm, 37mm and 20mm guns. An infantry division consisted of three infantry regiments, a regiment of divisional artillery and ancillary units. The mountains divisions were particularly important given that the Greek Army, woefully deficient in modern equipment, preferred to fight in the mountains. The mountain divisions were organised on the same basis as the infantry divisions, but with rather less artillery. Mountain and infantry divisions were 12,000-strong. The 56 regiments of infantry each consisted of a regimental staff, reconnaissance platoon, HQ platoon, staff company, and two battalions each with battalion staff, three rifle companies and one machine-gun company. Regimental strength was about 58 officers and 1,100 men. The main weapon was the Mannlicher-Schonauer M 1903/ 14 rifle. Support weapons comprised: • 36 light machine guns (Hotchkiss 8mm); • 8 heavy machine guns (St Etienne M07); • 4 x 81 mm mortars; • 2 x 65mm mountain guns. The crack infantry of the Greek Army were the Evzones Originally formed as light infantry during the war for independence at the beginning of the 19th century, these highlanders became part of the regular army in 1833. In 1940 they served in light regiments and in the Royal Guard. Divisional artillery for the mountain divisions consisted of four batteries (in the Greek Army a battery consisted of four guns) of 75mm mountain guns, and two batteries of 105mm guns. Infantry divisions had nine batteries of 75mm field guns. Each Army Corps had its own allocation of heavy artillery (see above) and there were, in addition, 12 batteries of heavy artillery for use with the field army. Since the artillery was equipped with either French, German or Czech guns Britain was unable to supply ammunition, and stocks in America were soon exhausted, so all the British could do was supply the Greeks with Italian materiel captured in Libya. In addition to the line infantry and mountain regiments there were a number of battalions and companies for island and land frontier defence, as well as a number of mobile and static machine gun units. When the British landed in Greece in March 1940 they were dismayed to find that many divisions existed in name only. One division of recently-assembled troops had a strength of just six battalions, and its transport was limited to the commander's motor car and five trucks, while the 'motorised' division had been formed from 2000 recently conscripted garage hands. It had only 24 light Italian and Dutch tankettes, some Italian lorries, a few British Bren Gun Carriers, and some motor cycles and motor cars. There were two regiments of cavalry each with four sabre squadrons, a machine gun troop with 12 machine guns and a squadron with four 81mm mortars. A third regiment, in the process of motorisation, consisted of four squadrons equipped with armoured cars, one machine-gun troop, one squadron with 8 1 mm mortars and a mounted machine-gun troop with three machine-gun companies each with 12 machine guns, and a sabre troop. These three regiments together with a battery of mountain artillery, a pioneer squadron and a radio squadron were formed into an independent brigade and played an important role in the defeat of the Italian invasion. Apart from this large formation, there were mounted forces serving as reconnaissance units with the Army Corps and infantry divisions; these reconnaissance battalions consisted of two squadrons, a machine-gun company or section, and (for the corps units) a mortar section. The Greek Army had put up a stout resistance to the forces of the Axis, and Greek partisans were to prove a redoubtable foe for the Germans. Uniforms:Greek Army uniform had developed along British lines and the service dress for officers illustrated in figure 113 differed only in so far as officers wore collar patches, and on the khaki peaked cap general and field officers had gold embroidery on the peak. The greatcoat for officers was double breasted and was also worn with collar patches and shoulder strap rank badges. Other ranks' uniforms were made of coarse khaki cloth and were also similar in cut to the British khaki service dress. In fact uniforms supplied by Britain were worn complete with buttons bearing the British coat of arms. The uniform consisted of side cap, tunic, single-breasted greatcoat, and pantaloons worn with puttees and ankle boots. Mounted personnel wore breeches and riding boots or leather leggings. A distinctive uniform based on Greek national dress was worn by the crack Evzones who formed the Royal Guard. On active service the more extreme features such as the pleated kilt and shoes with woollen pompoms were, of course, replaced by the more practical uniform worn by the other dismounted soldiers. There were two steel helmets in general use in the Greek Army. The first was the British Mk. 1 pattern, which was in the process of being replaced by a Greek model similar to the Italian helmet. Insignia:Officers wore rank badges on the shoulder straps of the tunic and greatcoat, while non-commissioned officers wore chevrons on the sleeves. Those for regulars were in gold or yellow lace and were edged in the arm-of-service colour, while the chevrons for conscripts were silver and unedged. The arm-of-service colour appeared on the collar patches and as edging to the rank chevrons of regular non-commissioned officers. AIR FORCE The Greek Air Ministry was responsible for the -air services maintained by the Greek Army and Navy. There was no independent Air Force as such. The Army air service was small with just 250 officers and 3000 men. Many of the pilots had undergone their training in England, and although outnumbered first by the Italians and then by the Germans, the air service put up a stubborn resistance in the campaigns of 1941 . In 1940 the combined strength of the Army and Navy air services was as follows: • 44 fighters (including Polish P.Z.L.24s, Gloster Gladiators and a few Hurricanes) ; • 46 bombers and reconnaissance planes; 16 general purpose aircraft; • 20 flying boats (Fairey Ills and German DO 22s). When the Germans invaded in April 1941 only 41 combat aircraft were still operational. The Army air service was organised in three flying regiments each of two squadrons, based on rather primitive airfields in Athens, Candia, Drama, Joannina Larissa, Salonica, Tanagra and Thebes. Its primary role was to provide air support for ground operations, but by January 1941 casualties and lack of spares had practically grounded it, and so the Greek command had to appeal to the RAF to switch its emphasis from bombing Italian lines of communication to providing air support to ground forces. Uniforms:The grey-blue service dress for officers is illustrated in figure 115, although on active service officers appear to have preferred wearing breeches and high boots. The side cap and the greatcoat were, like the rest of the uniform, modelled on the British RAF pattern. Other ranks wore a grey-blue version of the khaki uniform with side cap, single-breasted tunic, pantaloons and puttees and ankle boots. Flying clothing consisted of the usual leather flying helmet, goggles, and fleecelined leather flying jacket which was worn over the service dress or overall. Insignia:Officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs, while general officers had two and field officers one row of gold embroidered oak leaves on the cap peak. Other ranks wore Army-pattern rank badges on the sleeves. There were no arm-of-service colours as such, but qualified pilots wore embroidered `wings' over medal ribbons on the left breast. NAVYThe executive commander of the Navy was the Chief of the Admiralty, Admiral A. Sakellariou. Under him were 6300 regular naval officers and men and I 1,000 reservists and the following vessels: • 1 old armoured cruiser built in 1905/06 • 2 old light cruisers; • 4 old destroyers; • 4 Hidra Class (Italian) destroyers; • 13 old torpedo boats; • 2 motor torpedo-boats; • 6 submarines. The Greek Navy suffered its first loss on August 15, 1940, before the opening of hostilities, when the minelaying cruiser Helli was alleged to have been sunk by an Italian submarine. On the outbreak of the war two months later the Navy's first task was to ensure the safe passage of thousands of Army reservists recalled to the colours from the numerous Greek isles. At the same time the Navy patrolled the coast of Albania and provided artillery support. German entry into the Greco-Italian war was heralded by aerial attacks which destroyed a number of Greek warships. On April 21, 1941 the Greek government decided to evacuate the mainland, and the port of Salamis was blown up as the last ship carrying Allied troops left. 29 warships and auxiliary vessels were sunk - a very high proportion of the prewar Navy. Uniforms:Greek naval uniform followed the international pattern, and like the uniforms of the other branches of the armed forces, followed closely the British style. Officers wore the peaked cap with or without white cover and a gold-embroidered cap badge on the front. The reefer jacket had rank distinction lace on the cuffs and was worn with long trousers and black shoes. In the summer months or in tropical waters officers wore a white tunic with stand collar, white trousers and the standard-issue white canvas shoes. Petty officers wore a similar uniform to that worn by officers, but had a special cap badge. Ratings wore the uniform illustrated in figure I 16, and a white version in tropical waters. The leggings were the same webbing pattern as worn in the British Royal Navy but the waistbelt and leather ammunition pouches were as issued to the Greek Army. Officers wore rank distinction lace on the cuffs and on the shoulder straps of the greatcoat and white tunic. Petty officers and ratings wore their rank badges on the upper sleeve. COLOUR PLATESPHOTOGRAPHSGreek soldiers.Greek soldiers with a mountain gun. Greek machine gunners waiting for next air raid. Evzones the elite guard of the Greek army.Greek soldiers with a Italian Colonel and his ADC POW.
|
|